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![]() Timber Harvesting Cautions Written by Allyson Muth, Center for Private Forests at Penn State University Park, PA -- February 23, 2018 The recent warm weather and wet conditions are making for poor logging conditions; however, it appears that timber buyers are busy looking for standing timber. Based on the calls weve been getting from landowners wanting to know the dollar value of their trees, owners are looking at trees in a different way than usual. Unsolicited knocks on the door from someone offering to buy a landowners trees always raise red flags. Yes, it may be an efficiency of scale people are working in the area and wouldnt have to move equipment far but it also means you have something of economic value. And if youve never thought of your trees with dollar symbols in your eyes, it can be a surprise. You must use care that any activities you undertake dont compromise the reasons you own and care for your land. Jim Stiehler, now passed but formerly with the DCNR Bureau of Forestry, used to say, Timber harvest represents the best time to make a positive change on your woodland; but its also the time when the most damage can be done. As with many things forestry, there are many myths associated with timber harvesting that can lead to bad outcomes. Lets address some in hopes of getting to a more positive outcome. Those trees need to be cut. Unless they present a risk to life or infrastructure, or insect or disease is in the area, no tree ever needs to be immediately cut. Sure, trees have economic and biological maturity, but in a resource with a lifespan many decades beyond our own, the time frame for decision-making is correspondingly longer. You have time to make decisions that do well by your land. Get those big trees out of the way and the little trees will grow up to replace them. Unless youve taken action to get the next generation of young trees growing in the forest, or youre the lucky inheritor of a two-aged stand, for the most part across Pennsylvania, those big trees and little trees are the same age. They may be different species which would account for different growth rates (for example oaks and hickories), or they may the winners within a species due to microsite or genetic superiority. By the same rules that a farmer keeps his prize bull around for breeding, why would you want to take the best growing trees out of your stand, without ensuring that their progeny are there to replace them? And with most of Pennsylvanias trees of an average age between 80 and 120 years old, we know that at that age many trees lose their ability to respond well to increased light. They arent going to grow quickly and recapture a site instead the light can cause stress and youll lose more trees in the process. Well just do a select cut. As with the knock on the door, anytime the phrase select cut enters the conversation, red flags and warning lights go off. A foresters job is to use management techniques to mimic natural events in the forest (for example windstorm, fire, blowdown) to advance the forest along its successional path (the natural process of different species replacing each other following different stages of growth a process that can take tens to hundreds of years), slow it down, or reset it in order to help the forest improve in health and functionality, and to help it meet the owners values. In the manner in which it has come to be used, a select cut means the best trees are removed take the best and leave the rest. Diameter limit cuts fall in the same red flag area cutting all trees above a certain diameter. Within a species, this could remove the best growing trees of that group. Across species, because different tree species have different light requirements and rates of growth, this could remove an entire species from your forest. Anecdotally we hear about this happening a lot in mixed oak stands. With our forests history, in some places oaks are currently the largest trees. And if you love wildlife or hunting, it makes little sense to remove one of the largest food sources for insects (feed the birds) and wildlife. The maples and birch left arent going to fill that food void. Forestrys not complicated. I can do this on my own. Its been said that forestry is not rocket science; its a lot harder (I will admit, some forester probably said this). The reality is that a forest is a very complex system. As you engage with your woods, you recognize the diversity of species, the diversity of sizes, the things that are there that shouldnt be, and things that arent there that should be. All of these variables, plus a landowners values and goals for their property, and, hopefully, an expectation of land stewardship beyond the current tenure, should go into the decisions that are being made about the woods. There are professional service providers who can help consulting foresters. If ever a timber harvest is considered, we strongly encourage landowners to have someone to advocate for you, your values, and your long-term hopes for the woodland. Consulting foresters can prescribe management activities that will best mesh with your woods and your values. They can mark timber to carry out that activity. They can bid out the sale. And they can, at times, monitor the harvest to ensure good work is done. Yes, trees can bring dollar figures to your pocket, but they also bring you (and the rest of us) so much more. Having a professional who can interpret the story of your forest, help you understand what you have on your land, and help guide you in the process to move the forest to a place you hope it can go is an asset to you. As with other professionals, there are costs involved. But more often than not, these professionals ensure a more positive outcome. As with all professions, there are scrupulous and unscrupulous players in forestry. Get recommendations; ask for references. There is always time to make well-informed decisions about the long-term care of your woods. Purchase of standing timber may be picking up right now, but make sure you understand the actions and potential outcomes before you make the decision to sell trees. Ask for help. Educate yourself. The trees and forest will be better for it. A great resource to get you started is a Penn State publication titled, Forestry with Confidence. You can find it online (https://extension.psu.edu/forestry-with-confidence-a-guide-for-woodland-owners) and review or download a copy. The publication is also available for purchase shipping and handling fees are based on your location. The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, Penn State Extension, and the Center for Private Forests at Penn State, in Partnership through Penn States Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania. Allyson Muth
*********************************************************************************************** Seeing Change in our ForestsWeather, Insects, and Forest Health Written by Leslie Horner, Forest Stewardship Program Associate, Center for Private Forests at Penn State University Park, PA. January 30, 2018Despite the sheer number (both individuals and species) of insects in eastern forests, they go unnoticed by many as they carry on with their life cycles, hidden from our cursory sight under the leaf litter or in the tree canopy or beneath the bark of a tree. Every once in a while, though, changes in environmental conditions will cause insect populations to boom. These booms, or outbreaks, in insect population are more commonly noticedeither due to sheer number of insects or by their effects they have. While there are many native insects that escape our attention until such a population outbreak occurs, there are other species of insects that have gotten attention because of the havoc they are wreaking in the forests of Pennsylvania and other eastern states. Emerald ash borer and hemlock wooly adelgid are among several non-native pests that are on the radar of many woodland owners and managers as they have caused widespread death of ash trees and hemlocks. Spotted lanternfly, too, has also caused great concern for its rapid spread the past two years and the devastating effects its continued spread will have on trees and agricultural crops. Although native insects like gypsy moth, cherry scallop shell moth, and fall cankerworm can also cause significant forest damage during population outbreaks, a natural control of some kind (predators, for example) that brings the population back into balance is more likely within an insects native range. Changes in environmental conditionsespecially changes in temperature and precipitationplay a big role in the dynamics of insect population outbreaks. Forest researchers and managers have long been paying attention to changing environmental conditions, since they can have both short-term and long-term effects in forests, whether related to insect pests specifically or to overall forest health. As more and more woodland owners become aware of the damage from insect pests to some common tree species in our forests, many wonder how these pest insects are affected by weather extremes like a polar vortex, or an unusually warm winter, or a drought. Will gradually changing environmental conditions and short-term weather extremes help or hinder the spread of the non-native pest insects in our forests? We know that some weather extremes can help in controlling non-native insect pests in the short term. For example, single digit temperatures can kill as much as 90% or more of hemlock wooly adelgids in a given location. Individuals that are especially cold-hardy, however, will survive and reproduce. Emerald ash borers, whose larvae survive the winter underneath the bark of an ash tree, are very tolerant to extreme coldsurviving at temperatures even 22 degrees below zero. Spotted lanternfly is also adapted to cold temperatures, and actually lays eggs during the winter. Weather extremes and changing environmental conditions can directly or indirectly affect insect populations. In terms of direct effect, temperatures that vary significantly from the normal seasonal average may affect the development rates of insects, or cause a change in the timing of reproduction, and cause direct mortality of some insects. A long period of unseasonably warm days in winter, for example, can cause some species to break their winter dormancy, which in turn might lead to untimely reproduction or cause mortality in adults and/or immature insect forms when the temperatures snap back to normal. When we think of specific examples like some species of parasitic wasps that prey on emerald ash borers, it becomes clear how what seems like a small impact (i.e.death of some parasitic wasps during unusual or extreme weather) can cause ripple effects in the web of life in the forest. Changing environmental conditions can also have indirect effects on both insect and host tree species. For example, a trend of warmer winters can help facilitate a species extending an insect species range north. This has been evidenced by the southern pine beetle now moving further into the northeast. Similarly, trees can also extend to the edges of their range, facilitated by changing environmental conditions. When they are at the edge limits they are even more susceptible to damage resulting from insect outbreaks. Forest researchers and managers have long been paying attention to changes in environmental conditions, documenting both short-term and long-term effects in forests. Effects are being observed in individual woodland stands as well as at the landscape. Defoliation, dieback, mortality of host trees resulting from insect outbreaks has impacts on forest structure and composition, often aiding the spread on invasive plants. Insect outbreaks can also leave trees more vulnerable to tree diseases. With the complexity of the forest ecosystem and the wildcard factor of so many non-native, invasive insects and plants it seems daunting to think about the changes we may continue to see in our woodlands. For forest researchers, the focus of their work will continue to explore these complex relationships between environmental conditions, insects, and woodland plants and trees. For forest managers and woodland owners, there are tangible steps we can take to support forest health and function. We can maintain diversity of tree species and diversity of ages of trees. We can monitor our woodlands to watch for non-native insects and plants, and take action to control their spread. We can talk with our fellow woodland owners and neighbors about what weve learned in taking care of our own woodlands. Learn more about insect pests and tree diseases at:
To learn more about whats happening in your woodland and what you can do, contact your service forester for a visit at no cost to you:
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, Penn State Extension, and the Center for Private Forests at Penn State, in Partnership through Penn States Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania. Leslie Horner
Regenerating the Forest: Seeds and the Mysterious Seed Bank
From where does the next forest come? For many of us, our experience growing plants comes from working with gardens. Even without a green thumb, weve likely all, at some point in our lives, placed a seed in a cup of dirt to see if we could get something to grow. While seeds play a role in starting the next forest, either re-occupying a site, or spreading beyond their current boundaries, trees have multiple strategies to ensure their continuity through offspring. Most, if not all, of our hardwood trees have reproductive processes, in addition to seeds, which allow them continue to exist on a site in the woods. One such strategy is sprouting. While the ability can decrease as the tree ages, dormant buds at the root collar (where the stem connects to the roots) can sprout in response to damage or disease. We see a lot of stump sprouts after a tree has been harvested, and many of the trees in the current forest have sprouts as their start red maple is rather successful at this strategy. Other trees can send sprouts up from their root networks beech brush is an example of root sprouts. Another strategy used by some species is the ability to layer. As a branch curves down to the ground, it may become covered by leaves and duff, eventually enabling that branch to grow roots and create a separate clone that will survive if something happens to the parent tree some spruces have this ability and a few non-native shrubs as well. And then weve got a few plants that negatively impact our forests which can grow new plants from root fragments or rhizome fragments (rhizomes are subterranean stems that can send out both new roots and new stems trees dont have rhizomes, but problematic plants like Japanese knotweed do). An important consideration for all of these vegetative reproduction strategies is that the new tree is a clone of the parent. If the parent is lost due to insect or disease, the sprouts will have the same susceptibility. Seeds are a trees potential offspring from sexual reproduction strategies. If youll remember from your high school biology classes, genes are given to the seed from each parent. These genes will express differently as they combine, leading to different physical characteristics in an individual. While some tree species can self-pollinate, wind and insects are the prime distributors of tree pollen to the female flowers that will result in seed production. Just as trees have different strategies to pollinate their flowers wind and pollinators so too do they have different strategies to disseminate the seed. Wind is an important seed disperser for light seeds with wings (maples, ash, yellow poplar, pines, black birch); gravity also does its part to move seeds. Overland water flow is responsible for movement of lighter seeds. Small mammals move larger seeds as they cache food for winter survival; however, many squirrels and chipmunks tend to take bites out of seeds, limiting their ability to start to grow. Blue jays are winners in distributing oak seeds they have been recorded moving acorns several hundred to thousands of yards from parent trees. As humans, we also play a role in seed distribution think about those seeds that attach to your clothing, or land on your car to blow off at random times. Different seeds have different triggers that prompt a seed to germinate. Light and moisture are key for most species. Some require a period of exposure to cold, over-wintering, before they start to grow. Others germinate within days of falling to the ground. Some prefer bare mineral soil; others need to be covered in the duff of the forest floor to grow. There are also those that can hang out buried in the forest floor for years or decades before they respond to perfect conditions to grow these seeds are part of the seed bank. The seed bank has an air of mystery around it. Its an easy assumption to make that there are seeds on site that will respond to a harvest or natural event. But not all the trees that we want to continue to exist on a site have that ability. Yellow poplar has one of the longer-lived seeds in the seed bank at eight years. White ash and black cherry can bank for up to three years. The real winners in the seed bank, with seeds remaining viable for 50 to 100 years, are pin cherry (also called fire cherry) and black raspberry. Knowing the history of a site will help you understand what may come back after disturbance. Unfortunately, there are a few bad actors with the ability to bank their seed. Paulownia tomentosa (princesstree) seed can survive for two to three years in the forest soil. Japanese stiltgrass seed can remain viable for three years. If youre struggling with these non-native invasive species, you may have to keep fighting for multiple years to exhaust the seed bank an important consideration for your invasives treatment planning. Native tree reproductive strategies
Non-native tree and plant reproductive strategies
As you plan for the future of the woods, a knowledge of forest history and the tree species that live in your woods, and an understanding of their strategies to continue to exist, will be key to understanding the potential of your forest and will allow your woods to attain the goals youve set.
If youre interested in learning more about other tree species, the website Fire Effects Information System managed by the USDA Forest Service contributed much to the background for this news release (https://www.feis-crs.org/feis/faces/SearchByOther.xhtml). Click on Life Form and the blue button labeled Go to get to the species list.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, Penn State Extension, and the Center for Private Forests at Penn State, in Partnership through Penn States Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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Owning or Holding Woodlands
Written by Jim Finley, Director, Center for Private Forests at Penn State
University Park, PA June 26, 2017 Everyone owns stuff. Our homes are full of things. Things we buy. Things people give us. Interestingly, though, most of the things we own have a limited useful life. Almost everything we use wears out. Although, sometimes, we have something of value we inherited and continue to treasure protect or steward to pass forward to someone who will come after us.
Treat the earth well: it was not given to you by your parents, it was loaned to you by your children. We do not inherit the Earth from our Ancestors; we borrow it from our children."
Land is one of those things we own that will extend beyond us. We can use it carefully and, in the process, pass forward nearly all of its value. Alternatively, we can abuse land and the resources it provides and leave those who come after us with something of little value. We have the capacity to look forward beyond our needs and wants to those who will depend on those same resources in their lives. Land and many of the Earths natural resources are ultimately finite; when we have consumed them, they are gone. We cannot easily make more or find substitutions. Degraded land, parched land, disturbed land does not renew quickly.
For more than four decades, I have worked with and studied private woodland owners to help them steward the land by making good decisions about its care and management. My wife and I are among the nearly 750,000 woodland owners in Pennsylvania who link to the land through ownership of at least one acre of trees. Based on statistics alone, about one in six Pennsylvania households owns woodlands. But, do we really own the land?
Nearly 20 years ago, I was fortunate to spend time in Australia working with farmers and tree growers. These people all understood their connection to the land and they were striving to learn how to become better caretakers by repairing what they or previous generations had done to degrade the land. Without exception, the people I met understood and articulated that they had a duty to those who would next work the land. They struggled with the Western idea of owning land they were land holders. I like that perspective.
Today, for the first time human history, more people live in cities of more than a million people than live in less urban or rural places. As a result, our connections to the land and the values it provides to support ecological functions are eroding. Increasingly, understanding that we depend on the land for our very existence is almost a foreign construct. We appreciate connections to electricity more than we appreciate our connection to and dependence on nature. Today, I believe that our connections to the past and future also erode. We need to understand that the decisions we make about land, woods, and water extend across both space and time.
"We did not weave the web of life; we are merely a strand in it. Whatever we do to the web, we do to ourselves."
It seems that woodland owners I meet are increasingly warming to the idea that they are really caretakers of their land. They accept the idea that stewarding the land involves not just working to improve its health and well-being now, but also involves planning for who and what comes after their tenure. They are asking questions about how they can ensure that someone who cares for the land will hold it in the future and will pass it forward across generations. If you hold land or woodlands and have had thoughts about how to ensure its continued stewardship for future generations, Pennsylvania has tools and resources to help develop a plan to protect its value for tomorrow. Back in 2001, the states legislature passed the Conservation and Preservation Easements Act (Act 29 of 2001), which was the enabling legislation for conservation easements in the state (prior to 2001, the Agricultural Area Security Law allowed for agricultural conservation easements). A conservation easement allows landowners to sell or donate their right to develop the land to a conservation organization. The removal of this right follows the deed and all future owners are held to the same restriction no development. To learn more about this landmark legislation, visit http://ConservationTools.org and search the Library for Act 29.
Maybe a conservation easement is not the right tool for you and your vision for land. There are other options relating to developing an estate or succession plan that may allow you to help guide future decisions about the stewardship of the property. Planning an estate that will protect the important resources you hold today takes time. To learn more about how you can look into the future to protect land related resources, visit the Center for Private Forests legacy website (http://ecosystems.psu.edu/legacy).
Nearly 50 years ago, people were concerned about the future of clean air and clear water. At that time, a generation was stepping up and advocating for the environment. The need to do that is no less important today when some people have a short vision of our relationship to our land and its natural resources. If we continue to consume our resources for only our own economic gain, without thinking of the future, what will we learn?
"Only when the last tree is cut; only when the last river is polluted; only when the last fish is caught; only then will they realize that you cannot eat money."
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, and the Center for Private Forests at Penn State, in Partnership through Penn States Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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Getting to Know our Woods through the SeasonsSpringtime Insights
Written by Leslie Horner, Forest Stewardship Program Associate, Center for Private Forests at Penn State
University Park, PA -- April 25, 2017 -- With the arrival of spring, many of us go into the woods with a specific mission in mind, whether it is looking for the excitingly elusive morel mushroom, photographing ephemeral woodland flowers, or watching for returning migratory birds. In search of our own favorite spring harbinger, it can be easy to overlook the bigger picture and the story this picture tells about a woodland. In each season, we can gain new insights on how the woods function and what kinds of stewardship activities may be needed.
Many people focus on learning to identify trees primarily by leaves. Tree flowers and the timing of flowering are also useful features for identification, helping to distinguish between different species of the same genus of tree. Many guidebooks include flower illustrations. An especially helpful resource for visual learners is George W. D. Symmondfs The Tree Identification Book, published in 1958. In this book, photographs of tree flowers are organized in the general order of when they bloom.
Right now across central Pennsylvania we see some trees displaying pale green shades flowers that are recognizable as maples. But which species? The very-common red maple can be ruled out since those blooms are red or yellowish-red and have already passed peak bloom time. In your own woodland, you may have previously identified one of these trees as a sugar maple. A closer look at the pale green flower, though, may lead to a corrected identificationthe non-native Norway maple. Sugar maple flowers are clustered on long pedicels (stalks) that dangle, resembling clumps of green tinsel on the tree. The flowers of non-native Norway are on shorter, upright pedicels. This closer examination of tree flowers can also help to identify desirable tree species in your woodland that may not have been noticed before because there are few in number. Flowers can also help to reveal a tree in your woods that needs assistance if it is to survivea hackberry within a thicket of bush honeysuckle, for example.
In many tree species, the flowers emerge before the leaves. This is an adaptive strategy, enabling a tree to put its energy (carbohydrates stored in the tree over the winter) into reproductionproducing the flowers, which will in turn produce seeds. Flowering before leaves emerge or are fully grown helps in tree pollination, allowing more open space for pollen and pollinators to move from flower to flower. Some species, including oaks, hickories, elm, and birch, are pollinated by wind. Other species, including yellow poplar, basswood, locust, cherry, and magnolias, are pollinated by insects. As with the flowers of non-woody plants, tree flowers of different species have different morphology (shape) to attract particular pollinatorsbees, beetles, flies, wasps, butterflies, moths. Maples are wind-pollinated but they also may benefit from pollination by the bees and other insects that visit the flowers. Binoculars are a great way to get a view of flowers that are out of reach and the pollinators that visit them.
A broader view of a woodland in early spring can give a general sense of how many different tree species grow there. With the help of the flowers and without the leaves, it is easier to get a sense of how many other individuals of a tree species are present in a stand of trees or throughout the woodland. Having many individuals of the same species of our native trees is not necessarily a concern. On the other hand, this broad view may reveal an undesirable non-native species, which will negatively affect growth of native species, and may dominate a woodland. For example, Norway mapleidentified both by flowers and by leaves that emerge sooner than sugar maplemay be common in a stand. Similarly, if the broad view of the understory shows lots of shrubs which have developed leaves before most everything else in the woods, this usually indicates non-native invasives.
This simple exercise of taking the broad view of the woods to get a sense of whether there are a few species or many species has significance beyond mere observation. Foresters agree that a woodland is most resilient to threats from insect pests or disease or extreme weather when it has diverse species and ages of trees. Enhancing native tree and plant diversity involves managing light in woodlands, which is done by creating openings. Growth of tree species other than those present in the canopy, and growth of new age classes of trees (for example, seedlings, saplings) benefit from sunlight reaching below the canopy. In addition to openings being important to fostering age and species diversity in the woods, these openings also benefit pollinators. In 2016, researchers from the Southern Research Station of the U.S. Forest Service reported on their study of pollinator abundance in seven types of forests. Their findings showed that the abundance and diversity of pollinators was greatest in forests that had more openings in the canopy.
Adding to the other springtime observations suggested here, this season is also ideal for observing how light availability changes as leaves in the canopy emerge. This can help further decipher whether a woodland may benefit from new canopy openings to enhance native tree and plant diversity.
Does sunlight still reach the understory and forest floor when the canopy trees have leafed-out? If not, there may be need and opportunity to create some openings in the canopy to allow younger trees to establish and grow.
Any decisions to create new openings in the forest should involve careful thought about what other plants will take advantage of the openings. Clearly, if non-native invasive plants are nearby or already present in the stand, there is great risk that those undesirable plants commandeering increased light resources. Therefore, if you plan to change forest structure, it is critical to have a plan to address invasive-competitive plant species.
Springtime activities like theselearning to identify trees in a new way, observing and tracking how light in the woods changes as leaves emerge, and taking small ongoing steps to control populations of invasive plantsmay sometimes feel inconsequential. To the contrary, every small effort we make in understanding whatfs growing in our woods and thinking about how to foster variety in the species and the age of trees is essential and will contribute to greater overall impacts, especially if they are shared with family members, friends, and neighbors.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email toRNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, Penn State Extension, and the Center for Private Forests at Penn State, in Partnership through Penn Statefs Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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The Coming of Spring and Trees
Written by Jim Finley, Director, Center for Private Forests at Penn State
University Park, PA March 28, 2017 This was a different winter. It had a good start cold with some snow. Then, it was February. Instead of the coldest month, it was light jacket season it seemed as if spring was here to stay. Now, we are just past the spring equinox and most of the state recently saw a lot of white blanketing the ground. If we are confused, imagine how the plants gfeel.h
Some trees and other woody plants have started to respond to the unnatural weather conditions with swollen buds and subtle changes in twig color (yellow on willow, and reddish purple in black birch). Fruit growers across the state are anxiously watching the weather, wondering if we will get another cold snap that may hold off flowering until later in April and our more traditional frost-free dates. Similarly, strawberry producers are expressing concerns about cold temperatures affecting those delicate flowers. People care about these domestic plants and ask questions: Will the crops be safe? Will our weather affect supply and prices?
We can all appreciate how weather affects our crops and landscape plantings; however, what is happening in forests and woodlands? The astute observer will note changes that suggest forests are ahead of schedule as well. By the end of February in central Pennsylvania, some red maples were already opening flower buds. At the same time, buds on some shrubs (e.g., elderberry) were expanding and showing the yellow-green edges of juvenile leaves under the brown bud scales. By the second week in March, it was common to see aspen flowers displayed high in tree crowns.
Our native trees have over millennia adapted to our climate and go through a process of acclimation in the fall to prepare for cold and deacclimation in the spring to initiate growth. Both of these processes are set in motion by the interaction of available light and temperature. As trees begin the process of shutting down or going dormant for the winter, many internal changes at the cellular level prepare them for cold temperatures, and once they are dormant, they will remain in that state until they meet some external and internal thresholds. Again, these include light and temperature. In addition, for some tree species, they need to attain a chilling threshold where temperatures are cold enough for an extended period. Once dormant, most of our trees can tolerate extremely low temperatures.
Trees begin to gawakenh or come out of dormancy (i.e., deacclimate) in response to photoperiod or the amount of light and the amount of time where temperatures are above freezing. Just like many of us, coming awake is a much slower process than falling asleep or going dormant. Apparently, once the deacclimation process reaches a certain point, it is increasingly difficult to reverse; however, it is possible to gstallh growth initiation with cold temperatures if it is early enough. As dormancy begins to break, growth initiation will occur and most sensitive are flower and leaf buds. Most often, though, for many of our forest trees, flowering buds open after the leaf buds, and leaves are generally more cold tolerant.
Studies have determined that our native trees deacclimate differently in response to the amount of light or photoperiod and the accumulation of warmth when gdecidingh to awaken in the spring. Among those that response more to light are white ash, sweet gum, white pine, white oak and swamp white oak. Those that awaken to increasing amounts warming include sugar maple, box elder, green ash, butternut, quaking aspen, black cherry, and red oak.
In a normal year, the combination of light and temperature provides the means for predicting plant processes such as spring greening and fall coloration. However, one of the unknowns is how our trees will have responded to the warm February. We may well see some trees leaf out earlier. Hopefully, these young leaves will do well. More problematic is if forest tree flowers appear too early and their subsequent response to early frosts, which are extremely damaging to flowers. Many wildlife species depend on successful seed years for mast production (i.e., acorns, nuts, and fruits). Increasingly changes in weather and climate put seed production at risk and the resulting impacts to forests and dependent species and processes are important to consider.
Documenting and understanding the timing of these and other events in a plantfs life involves the study of phenology. Phenology is very useful as it relates to timing of anticipated natural events and may help us understand how weather and climate change, as well as how those factors affect wildlife behavior and lifecycles. People, both scientists and citizens, have followed and document phenological events for years. To enlarge the number of people watching events across large regions, scientists seek input from the public in a partnership to do citizen science. As an example, one citizen-science project - Project BudBurst (http://budburst.org) has depended on people across the country to report when common plants first flower. This effort and others like it provide data on how changing climate is affecting plants.
If you would like to learn more about phenology, look to Center for Private Forests at Penn Statefs website (http://ecosystems.psu.edu/research/centers/private-forests/news/2016/woodland-nature-journal2014tracking-changes-through-the-seasons) to purchase a copy of its Woodland Nature Journal to record your local observations and to find information on other citizen-science projects relating to phenology.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, and the Center for Private Forests at Penn State, in Partnership through Penn Statefs Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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Waiting For SpringA Closer Look at Forest Ecology in Winter
Written by Leslie Horner, Forest Stewardship Program Associate, Center for Private Forests at Penn State
University Park, PA -- January 19, 2017 -- A fascinating aspect of a woodland ecosystem in winter is the evidence of all the various ways by which animals and plants survive harsh winter conditions. In late fall, the growth rate and reproduction of both plants and animals begin to change, triggered by the length of day and nights. These physiological responses collectively are called photoperiodism. The lengthening nights and shortening days trigger winter survival strategies. The primary strategies for adapting to freezing temperatures and reduced food availability are: migration, hibernation, and toleration.
Migration is perhaps the most commonly considered of these strategies. It is fairly easy to notice the comings and goings of many bird species. Warblers and other songbirds have left for warmer southern climes, making more noticeable the dark-eyed juncos, tufted titmice, Carolina wrens, and other species that remain in the winter woodlands. Other birds, including pine siskins, common redpolls, evening grosbeaks, snowy owls, Northern harriers, and numerous other species of raptors and waterfowl migrate to and through Pennsylvania and other temperate zone states through the winter. Migration even occurs among mammalian species such as the woodland-dwelling silver-haired bat, and even insects like the monarch butterfly.
The second type of winter adaptation observed among woodland animals is hibernation. While other animals are more commonly thought of when considering hibernation, woodland insects also survive through winter in a type of hibernation called diapause. Diapause is simply an intermission� in development prompted by adverse environmental conditions. Diapause occurs at different life stages for different types of insects. In many butterfly species, winter diapause happens during their pupal form, while the young insect undergoes complete metamorphosis while protected inside a case-like structure called a chrysalis. This pupal, or chrysalid, stage in development entails a breaking down of larval body tissue and reforming into the adult form of the insect. Wooly bear caterpillars, the larval form of the Isabella moth, get through the winter a different way. They overwinter in that larval (caterpillar) form, often sheltering in the leaf litter or under tall grasses.
The emerald ash boreran insect that many woodland owners are on the lookout forsurvives the winter in a form that is somewhat in between the larval and pupal development phases. These pre-pupae are protected from the freezing temperatures in the inner bark or the outer inch of the sapwood of the ash tree or log. A study done in Ontario, Canada found that the larvae of the borer are cold-hardy to the point of -23F, at which point even the adaptive strategy of diapause is not sufficient to survive the cold. Emerald ash borers are successful in surviving these extreme temperatures by accumulating high concentrations of glycerol, a sugary compound with a very low freezing point. They also are able to produce other compounds which act as antifreeze within their bodies.
In the woods during winter, one will also see some adult insects that remain active or semi-active. Smaller body size of some species that remain active helps to eliminate surface area exposed to cold and moisture. Like the emerald ash borer, the winter survival strategy used by many insects that overwinter as adults is the production of sugars, alcohols, and proteins, which have properties that act as antifreeze. These cryoprotective compounds replace most of the water in an insect, and prevent the bodily injury that would occur from water turning to ice crystals.
The third strategy, tolerance, is the primary adaptation woodland plants rely upon to survive winters freeze. All plants have a physiological response to freezing temperatures, shortening days and lengthening nights, though the types of responses vary. In annual plants, individual plants are killed by winter weather, but the plant community survives because of the mature seeds that will spread and produce new plants in the spring. Other plants, including almost all of our native perennial flowers and herbs, die back in winter except for their rhizomes (roots), which go dormant until warmer temperatures trigger new vegetative growth in the spring.
Trees, with their height, experience significant exposure to freezing temperature, strong winter winds, ice, and snow. They rely on both chemical and structural changes that help them tolerate the winter. Structurally, the shape of conifers helps to protect against limb breakage by allowing gravity to help clear snow-laden branches. The fallen snow also creates a protective fence� around the tree. Some species, like oaks and beeches, retain their leaves well into winter as an added layer of protection against water loss through leaf scars. Bark also plays a significant role in preserving water resources during winter.
In fact, most of the winter tolerance adaptations of trees relate to waterpreventing water loss or damage to the trees living cells by ice crystals. In late fall, a plant hormone called abscisic acid (AA) is triggered by the shorter days. One of the functions of AA is to increase the flexibility in cell walls within the tree. This helps in two ways. First, permeability of the cell walls allows water to move from within the cell to the space in between cells. The water can freeze there without causing damage to the cells. Secondly, because the cell walls are now more pliable, any water that does remain in the trees cells and freezes has less risk of the crystals puncturing the cell wall, which ultimately would stress the tree.
Along with other responses triggered by photoperiodic changes in late fall is the conversion of starches to sugar within tree cells, which lowers the freezing point. Another fascinating way that trees tolerate winter through managing water at a cellular level has been described by Paul Scharberga plant physiologist with the U.S. Forest Service Aiken Forestry Sciences Lab in Burlington, Vermontas a glass phase.� In this cellular adaptation to prevent freezing, water mimics the almost-solid characteristic of molten silica as it cools to form glass, which appears solid but actually continues to move ever so slightly. The cell water, like silica, retains its liquid properties, allowing the slightest degree of movement.
Though adaptations like these cant be observed with the naked eye, there are plenty of other winter survival strategies to observe during a walk in the woods. In any case, getting to see our woodlands in different seasons is a big part of developing an understanding and appreciation for the complexity and interdependence of all the living parts of a forest. Throw on an extra layer and head out to see what you can see for yourselfat the very least, it will give you time to think about what forest stewardship activities you might want to add to this years to-do list.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, and the Center for Private Forests at Penn State, in Partnership through Penn States Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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Trees and Drought
Written by Jim Finley, Ibberson Professor of Forest Management and Director, Center for Private Forests at Penn State
University Park, PA -- September 27, 2016 -- In Pennsylvania, we have had an extraordinarily hot and dry summer. Those who make their living from the land are well aware that rain is changing. When it occurs, it is more intense and has seemingly less value to crops. It seems that those less connected to the land celebrate the warm days without rain � another sunny day is not always the best day.
So, how have some of your neighbors fared? "Hey you! Yes, you, the tall skinny fellow standing on the edge of the road. How has your summer been?"
"You, know, I live here next to the road. All summer, I've watched the sun rise over there in the east, move across the sky, set in the west. This road, that lies just south of where I live, reflects a lot of heat towards me. Most days, there are few clouds to offer any shade, and I get awfully thirsty. It seems I take in gallons of water to no avail. As fast as I take it in, it just seems to evaporate. From early in the morning until late afternoon, I have to put up with direct sun -- there is no shade from my neighbors. Many days this summer, I ran out of water and, even as the sun set, I was too hot and dry to do my work. This summer really stressed me out and quite a few of my neighbors are in real trouble -- I am not sure they can take more of this weather!"
Imagine what it is like to have your roots anchoring you in one place and depending on rain from the sky to ensure there is adequate moisture in the soil to keep you working. What kind of work does a tree do, you ask? Well, trees use carbon dioxide from the air, water from the soil, and light from the sun to make sugar through work called photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a complex process that requires certain conditions. All of our trees have leaves where the magic occurs. Tree roots collect and move water, which is absolutely essential, along with minerals and nutrients through long soda straw like tubes in the trees bole to the leaves. Photosynthesis involves combining carbon dioxide, which enters the leaf through small openings called stomates, water, and light in special cells called chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll (the green color in leaves) to make sugars. Stomates are important part of the process as they have the ability to open and close and thus control photosynthesis.
Stomates open and close by monitoring the amount of water available and air temperature. If the temperature is too high, then water demand is too high, and the tree stops making sugars necessary for its growth. When that happens, trees have to respirate. That is, they use up sugars to carry out life functions. The relationship between water in the soil and leaves is critical. And, on a hot summer day without rain, a tree might spend more of its time using up its sugars than using them to make wood, seeds, new twigs and buds, repairing damage, and getting ready for winter.
There is a lot going on with trees even when they are not growing. If things get really hot and water is too scarce, trees and most other plants will wilt and loose turgor pressure in their leaves. You have seen those wilting leaves. If water comes soon enough or the air temperature drops as it does late in the day and through the night, plants can recover; however, the stress of inadequate water can take its toll.
Trees under stress are susceptible to many threats. Insects and diseases are often lurking in the environment to take advantage of tree defense mechanisms negatively affected by heat and inadequate water. Healthy trees are constantly restoring and repairing weakened or damaged defenses. For example, Armillaria mellia, a common root rot, is always present the soil. When roots struggle to find water, they may begin to decline as water is actually pulled from their fine roots by the soil itself. Re-establishing water movement processes from those points to the leaves takes resources, and the roots may lose their battle with the root rot fungus and as a result begin a slow process of decline and, perhaps, death.
Across Pennsylvania, trees are showing signs of stress. The tree we heard from at the start of this article might be one along a road or next to your driveway. The extra heat gathered and reflected from the macadam increases water demand. Already, as you look around the neighborhood, you might see some trees are having leaf loss at the tops of their crowns. Elsewhere in the crown, leaves are detaching and littering the lawn with green rather than autumn colors.
You may have also noticed trees on road cuts turning brown or showing premature yellow. These cuts where the soil is shallow or facing south or west are often quick to show moisture stress. When water is scarce, as it is now, it is common to see maple and birch shedding leaves or going brown.
Elsewhere, there are reports of patches of oak, red and sugar maple, and even tulip poplar changing color sooner than expected or even appearing dead. It is difficult to interpret what is happening in all cases, but in some, the site might be poor, with shallow soils, or oriented to receive more direct light and heat; trees are responding by casting leaves earlier than expected. In some cases, roads and reflected heat add to the stress, or soils impacted by construction or fill just cant hold enough water.
Water is essential for plant growth. Heat and lack of rain make for difficult growing conditions. Over the next few years, based on this summer alone, expect trees to struggle even if conditions are better next year. As we approach the end of the growing season, there is not much we can do for individual trees showing stress responses, especially in the forests. Lawn trees might benefit from deep watering. Make sure they get at least two inches of water under their crown spread every 7 to 10 days until the soil freezes.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, and the Center for Private Forests at Penn State, in Partnership through Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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New Leaves on Trees: Will They or Won't They Show?
Written by Allyson Muth, Forest Stewardship Program Associate, Center for Private Forests at Penn State
University Park, PA -- May 20, 2016 -- Driving around Pennsylvania this time of year, we've seen or are starting to see leaf bud break on many trees. As I pass through various regions, I'm paying close attention to what's happening with the trees. Bud break and leaf out vary between species and are quite often influenced by weather. This year is an interesting year due to the early warmth and dryness, and now cool and wet -- it appears many trees may be confused. Or maybe there is something wrong... Leaf out gives a good idea of what should be happening, but maybe isn't. The inner monologue as I see trees not quite fully leafed-out goes something like this, "Is that one a black walnut? Yes! Okay, it's not bad that that one doesnt have leaves yet. Wait, where are Thousand Cankers Disease outbreaks? How close am I to those? Okay, fingers crossed for that one. An oak? Maybe I can start to see some green. Whew, I see flowers expanding which look like tassels below the small young leaves. That one's good too. What about that one? That's an ash. It is gone. That one won't be leafing out this year or ever again� So sad."
Since its first Pennsylvania detection in the middle 2000s, the extent of the emerald ash borer impact is significant, in both the area and the speed of the damage done. It seems this year that a lot of ash that previously were hanging on are no longer. Fencerows have standing dead trees. Yard trees are dead. This component of the forest has been decimated, in the literal sense of the word.
When the emerald ash borer was identified in the Midwest and the first infestations were discovered in western Pennsylvania, many wrote the species off. At that time, ash only comprised 11% of the state's forest trees, and by the time we discovered the borer's presence, its extent was beyond the initial discovery area. It's hard to determine where those little guys are until ash start dying. Despite marketing campaigns to "stop moving firewood," these pests were considered unstoppable, and major eradication or control efforts were not implemented because there weren't any feasible options for large scale treatment.
We live in a time of global commerce with unfortunately limited resources for inspection of imports to stop new threats from entering our forests. As a result, battles have to be chosen wisely and all too often there are few options for mounting an offensive. The emerald ash borer has taken or is taking a tenth of the forest trees. Combine that with dead and dying elm (Dutch elm disease and elm yellows) and hemlock (hemlock woolly adelgid), gypsy moth infestations, both current and from several years ago, impacting the oaks, and thousand cankers disease now threatening the black walnuts, we see lots of dead trees. Now, as things green up, its easy to find the absence of green where it should be. And once you see, you can't stop seeing.
As you begin to see what's missing from the landscape where you travel or visit, pay attention to other species having trouble. Seemingly, there are always known and unknown threats challenging trees and forests. If we find them early, there are sometimes control options, even if it means removing affected trees. Recently in nearby states, keen-eyed and curious woodland owners were some of the first to identify the Asian long horned beetle and in Pennsylvania the spotted lanternfly. These early detections are key to control these pests.
So what happens now with all the ash? Dead ash are messy decomposers. They tend to decay quickly and often snap up high in windy weather. Now is the time to pay attention to the dead ash in your yards, next to your buildings, along your trails. These dead trees will quickly become hazard trees and may pose a safety concern for you and yours.
Removing dead trees is always a risky activity. Use all of your personal protective equipment and tremendous caution in getting these trees down. Don't hesitate to call on a professional if the trees are big, numerous, or in settings where property or personal injury are concerns
Going forward, pay attention to all the trees around you. Watch for crowns of trees that were once lush and full, but now are looking sparse or thin. Watch for increased woodpecker and other insect-eating bird activity, as they strip bark to get at the insects just underneath. Inform yourself about what's going on in your area so you know what to watch for in your woods and the woods around you.
The PA DCNR Bureau of Forestry has a useful website where they post advisories, information about forest pests, fact sheets, and how to identify what is killing your tree (http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/forestry/insectsdisease/index.htm). Check it out. Keep yourself informed. And keep your eyes open!
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, Penn State Extension, and the Center for Private Forests at Penn State, in Partnership through Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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A Look at Forest Health -- Simple Steps to Help Evaluate the Woods Nearby
Written by Leslie Horner, Forest Stewardship Program Associate, Center for Private Forests at Penn State
University Park, PA -- April 21, 2016 -- In the "procession" of spring blooms and leaves, it will be another three weeks or so before the leaves of trees begin to unfurl. Some shrubs, however, conspicuously have had their leaves for almost a month now. As happy as many of us are to see the first green after the winter months, the green of these early-leafing shrubs is actually a tell-tale indicator that these shrubs are likely invasive species--autumn olive, Russian olive, Japanese barberry, and bush honeysuckle to name a few, as well as small trees like the Bradford pear.
Like the early leafing-out of invasive shrubs, seasonal changes generally reveal clues to woodland health that may have gone unnoticed before. Now--before the trees are fully leaved--is an ideal time to observe some other factors that help to describe forest health. Though a forester will use a more in-depth process to evaluate forest health, there are some simple steps anyone can take to get a basic understanding of whether or not a forest is "healthy."
One important first step in evaluating forest health is to look at the physical arrangement of the woods--the forest structure. A healthy forest has multiple vertical layers. Beginning with the forest floor and moving up, these layers are: the leaf litter, the understory (composed of herbaceous plants, woody shrubs and young trees usually under about 5 ft. in height), a mid-story (with young trees and shrubs taller than those in the understory), and an overstory (also called the canopy). Trees and shrubs that have died are also part of forest structure. Each layer in the forest structure performs a set of "job duties" for the forest ecosystem, whether it is shelter or food for a variety of animals, regulating the amount of light available to plants below, or enriching the soil through decomposing leaves or logs.
To practice what a forester looks for in evaluating forest structure, begin by simply looking from the ground to the tops of the trees, and then scan the woods from side to side. Are the expected layers of the forest structure there? Are there large gaps--with no living or dead tree structures--between the canopy and what is below? Is there a very dense shrub layer present? Do some shrubs and/or vines develop leaves long before the other trees and shrubs?
Early leaf development is often a clue to identifying invasive species. Landowners can take advantage of this characteristic "self-identification" by invasive plants and take time to mark them with flags, ribbons, or other visible marking for locating later. Killing invasive shrubs is an important activity. At the edge of a woodland, where they are commonly found, their seeds are carried by wildlife and become planted elsewhere. In this way, these shrubs can spread deeper into woodland interiors, where it is especially important to find and remove them. The dense layer formed by these fast-spreading invasive shrubs significantly reduces the amount of light that reaches the forest floor. This reduction in light, in turn, may eliminate or greatly reduce the number and diversity of native plants and considerably impact the successful development of tree seedlings.
Looking further into the forest structure, are dead or dying trees present? In a healthy forest, some dead and dying trees are expected--in fact, they are necessary to the balance of a forest ecosystem. Dead trees that are still standing, known as snags, provide food to insects and animals that eat insects, shelter to a variety of birds and mammals. Dead trees and branches also continue to provide food and shelter after falling to the ground, in addition to helping to build and enrich the soil. Because of this role in the ecosystem, fallen dead trees, also called "coarse woody debris," are more good indicators of woodland and even stream health.
On the other hand, if a forest has many dead or dying trees, it could be a sign that a pest insect such as emerald ash borer or gypsy moth has invaded. It could also indicate some type of disease that is affecting the trees. Signs of a dead or dying tree include: woodpeckers visiting a particular tree frequently, holes or patches of cleared bark left from their feeding, or tree branches without bark and/or small twigs.
Having trees of different ages is another indicator of forest health. It would seem that trees of different heights and diameters in our woodlands indicate trees of different ages. Instead--due to past harvesting, land clearing during settlement times, and some catastrophic natural events (insects, fire, disease, for example)--most trees in a given Pennsylvania woodland are actually about the same age. Differences in the height and diameter of individual trees is a direct result of light conditions and "room to grow" available to the trees. The species of tree is another factor that leads to differences in height and diameter, as some species grow faster than others. In a forest, there may be patches of trees that are a different age than another patch of trees within the same forest--as a result of light, space, and species--but the overall age of the forest will be about the same.
We can promote woodland health by helping along the growth of younger trees. An easy starting point, with the help of a few guiding questions, is to evaluate whether or not the conditions are right for establishing new trees to grow into the canopy. Are there openings in the canopy that allow light to reach the forest floor? If not, some tree species may not receive enough light to grow; they may be "hanging out" in the understory waiting for the right light conditions to help them grow. Are there tree seedlings present across the forest floor? Are there young trees that are unusually scraggly? If so, it could be an indicator that deer are browsing heavily on the young trees, stunting the growth of the tree.
These are just a few but important ways to look at woods to get a sense of their health. It is very likely that the woods near you could use a little assistance. The necessary help may include: removing non-native and invasive plants to allow growth of native species; protecting young trees from deer damage with fencing and shelters; and creating openings in the canopy so that trees of different ages and species can become established and eventually grow into the canopy. Diversity in woodland species and age is essential in the long term. A healthy forest is diverse and will thereby remain resilient to unforeseen changes that will occur over time.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, and the Center for Private Forests at Penn State, in Partnership through Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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Wooded Landscapes Have Very Few Fences
Robert Frost, in his 1915 poem Mending Fences, wrote "Good fences make good neighbors." Interestingly, this was not his perspective; rather, it was his neighbor's. Frost questioned the need for a fence as his neighbor's land harbored pines and his, apples. It did not strike him that his apples would eat his neighbor's pine cones. Frost saw value in good fences when cows were involved; otherwise, before building a wall he would ". . . ask to know, What I was walling in or walling out. . ." He was arguing against rather than for fences. In other words, fences that tend to isolate and enclose do not make for good neighbors -- an outward view builds better relationships
We all live in a landscape. For sure there are lines -- boundaries -- that define our relationships within a landscape and to the property of others. This is the case whether you live in an apartment, an urban development, or a rural landscape. We know where these "imaginary" lines are and to some extent we defend them as our property. For sure, there are reasons in a civil society to know and respect these boundaries against some intrusions; however, they are permeable.
Without getting too deeply into legal arguments over property rights, we experience and observe that what others do on their property does affect us. The neighbor's new bright pink utility shed may offend your view. The barking dog takes away from a night's sleep. The barbecue up the street smells delightful, but you weren't invited to the party. There are many egregious issues involving boundaries that the courts have addressed; however, consider that we all have a duty to others who live in our landscape -- our neighbors both close and further away.
The limits or boundaries of a landscape are difficult to describe, as one property borders another and yet another. In many ways, we are all neighbors and the decisions we make move across the landscape like ripples from a stone tossed into a pond.
When managing land, it becomes readily apparent that no one can control everything that moves across boundaries within the landscape. Air, water, wildlife, and seeds cross boundaries within and beyond what we might call a landscape. It might seem that individual choices within a larger landscape are not that important. They are. The trick is to consider how good and bad decisions can add together, and how time adds to the importance of recognizing our individual roles in helping create and maintain healthy, functioning landscapes where we can live, work, and recreate.
Across Pennsylvania, forests and woodlands are dominant features on our landscape. The decisions individual landowners make about use of their woodlands affect the larger landscape and directly affect forest health because their actions reach beyond their boundaries. There many examples.
In about 1904, chestnut blight was inadvertently introduced to North America through infected nursery stock from Japan. In 1905 foresters noted that American chestnut trees in New York's Zoological Garden were showing symptoms of an unnamed disease. While it is likely the disease was introduced in multiple locations as Japanese chestnut trees were popular additions to gardens, it quickly spread across the East and in less than forty years had decimated this economically and ecologically important species, essentially eliminating it from our forests.
Gypsy moths were purposely brought to the United States with the intent of cross-breeding them with silkworms to develop a silk industry in New England. In 1869, a few of the insects escaped and in less than ten years were defoliating trees in Massachusetts. Despite warnings of the potential threat from this species, there was little effort to contain its spread. By 1937 they had crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, where they have killed millions of trees and continue to wreak havoc on forested landscapes.
Perhaps less dramatic, but demonstrating how seemingly unimportant or poorly conceived decisions move across landscapes, consider multiflora rose, an Asian species first introduced in the 1860s as rootstock for grafted roses. In this role, it was relatively "well behaved." Then, in 1930s, the Soil Conservation Service promoted it for soil erosion control and as a living fence or natural hedge. By the late 1960s, it was obvious that the living fence was out of control -- it was moving from one property to another across landscapes.
Consider one more example involving a loved native and very controversial species -- the white-tailed deer. This species easily moves across boundaries in any landscape. Some landowners seek more deer; while others want fewer. Too many deer shift plant species composition by selective browsing that "allows" less desired native and exotic plant species to gain the upper hand and exclude many desirable species. Only by working together, across fences, can we balance their numbers with the capacity of our woodlands to support the herd.
The list of species that were once considered controllable and now challenge our ability to manage natural systems is long: emerald ash borer, autumn olive, bush and Japanese honeysuckle, Japanese stiltgrass, Oriental bittersweet, hemlock wooly adelgid, and more.
To address these types of challenges, like raising a child, takes a neighborhood. If people can cooperate by looking both inside their "fence" and across the wider landscape, maybe there is a chance to restore forest and landscape health. People have to become neighbors who work together to restore landscapes. Taking a turn on Frosts poem, if we are going to have healthy forests, landscapes, or global climates, good neighbors have to take down fences and learn to work together to achieve common goals. This is not easy, but it starts by talking across the fence, to understand shared needs, and to decide to look for balance and health.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, and the Center for Private Forests at Penn State, in Partnership through Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
Jim Finley
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Allyson Muth
University Park, PA -- February 19, 2016 -- In working with landowners across the state, the staff of The Center for Private Forests at Penn State spend a lot of time discussing the need for forest legacy planning. Forest legacy planning is simply extending the concept of estate planning to include a plan for woodland property to be transferred and cared for by a future owner-- whether a family heir or an unrelated owner. This planning is important because we know that harvests occur and/or land is parcelized, or subdivided, most often at the time when it changes hands, either within families or outside. Our research has found that 80% of landowners want their woods to stay in the family, yet only 21% have plans to create legal structures that will protect the working woods and facilitate the transfer of land between owners. Fewer still have taken concrete action.
We also know that 75% of the current woodland owners got their land by purchase rather than inheritance. If percentages buying versus inheriting have stayed consistent between generations of landowners, this means that a lot of landowners' plans for the woods remaining in the family have failed.
Studies cite family communication as one of the major barriers to planning. Discussing what happens when the current owner is no longer alive can be difficult for family members. Current owners choose not to engage their heirs in conversation to keep family harmony or because assumptions are made about potential heirs' interest in the woods ("What if they dont want it?" or "Im sure they know how I want the land to be cared for"). Believe it or not, not all families have excellent intergenerational communications!
When we talk about legacy planning, estate planning, or succession planning, we spend a lot of time talking about communications. Many organizations have created tools to facilitate learning about family members� values around the woods. There are lots of resources available to landowners whove made decisions to delve into legacy planning (just Google "Forestry Legacy Planning" or "Woodland Legacy Planning" to find some). There are a range of legal tools people can use to pass on land, but understanding those options require a willingness to move beyond the decision to make a plan. All the tools and resources out there require a willingness to start the process, a commitment to making a plan, and communications with those you hope will come after you.
If one of the biggest hurdles for legacy planning for those who wish to keep the land in their family is family communications, how do you take an understanding your hopes and intentions for your woodland and turn them into a statement of commitment and action? If family communications are not easy, it might require a more formal approach to ensure smooth family conversations. Most businesses, organizations, and other entities develop mission statements to guide their work, to provide a goal and future aspiration, and to give those working within the group an understanding of who they are and what they aim. The same process of creating a mission statement might help you plan for the future of your woods. How might you best communicate the values and aspirations you have for the woods now and for future owners? What if you gave those voices a resonant message that all could support and use to plan for the future of the land -- a Woods Mission?
What would your Woods Mission sound like? It would likely include words like "protect," "use," "conserve," "sustain." It would have values that resonate with you and your family, like "wildlife," "beauty," "recreation," "forest products," "health," "privacy." It would likely include words indicating a future that looks even better than the current condition, like "improve," "enhance," "create."
What words give voice to your woods? What words represent values and hopes you hold and those you hope to come after you hold? What words represent a way of talking about the woods that doesnt necessarily impose upon family dynamics, but instead represents expectations and goals that all can fully support?
Being a woodland owner is difficult work. Being caretakers of a resource that provides benefits not just to you and yours, but to the larger society as well, carries responsibility that many are willing to shoulder. Caring well for the woods includes planning for its future. Despite the difficulties often accompanying future planning processes, reflect on what you hope will happen to the land after you. Include the voices and values of those you hope will become the next caretakers of the land. Be clear and collaborative about those hopes. Leave no room for assumptions or misunderstandings. Create with your heirs a message to embrace and then support their journey to becoming caretakers of the woods. The process starts with the current owners. Give voice to that work by developing your Woods Mission.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, and the Center for Private Forests at Penn State, in Partnership through Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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Leslie Horner
Making a Plan -- Learning and Caring for Your Woods Through the Year
Written by Leslie Horner, Forest Stewardship Program Associate, Center for Private Forests at Penn State
University Park, PA -- January 21, 2016 -- In nature, winter is a time of pause and slowing down of many animal and plant life cycles. With the arrival of colder weather and the bustle of the holidays now behind us, we may be thinking of our own "hibernation." On the other hand, many of us are also happily paging through seed catalogs, planning our vegetable and flower gardens, or thinking of other projects for the new year. This relatively quiet time of the year is also perfect to plan for woodland activities that can be done in spring, summer, and fall.
Developing a schedule for woodland stewardship (or tree care, if you have a small wooded area in your yard) can benefit you and your woodland in several ways. Breaking a project into individual steps can help the work feel less overwhelming. Taking time to plan a schedule for the year also ensures that activities are done when they will yield the best results for your trees and other plants.
There is no one-size-fits-all schedule for woodland stewardship--what goes into your calendar depends on your goals for the land and conditions in your woods. If you havent written out your goals and objectives, make this your first "to-do" for the years calendar. This task can be simplified by asking and answering a few questions. What do you enjoy or value about your woods? How do you use your woods now? What are your hopes for using and enjoying your woodland in the future? Answering these questions will help you get started in reaching your objectives -- for example, managing for particular wildlife species, growing non-timber forest products, or gathering firewood.
While it may not feel like work, walking in your woods throughout the year is an important "to-do" to add to your calendar. This will help you get to know the lay of the land and to observe and better understand what is happening. Even if you are very familiar with your woods, regular walks help keep track of projects you started or unexpected occurrences like a tree falling across a trail or fence. Bring a small notebook and a camera to describe and document what you see. You can also record possible actions and your questions as you explore.
Begin your year with a woods walk. It is an ideal time for checking fence lines and property boundaries, and for noticing features or special places (e.g., rock outcroppings, old home sites) that are hidden when the trees and shrubs have leaves. Including such places in your description of your woodland can help in planning future work activities or enjoyment. The winter timing also gives a different perspective on woodland conditions. How would you describe the vertical and horizontal arrangement of trees and other woody plants throughout the woods? Are there areas that seem to be all shrubs and no trees? Are there trees densely covered with vines? Make note of areas like these, as they may indicate spots where you may have a need to control competitive plants. If you are able to identify the shrubs or vines as invasive species, you can use the winter to learn about best strategies to control each species you find on your property.
Creating or improving wildlife habitat may be one of your objectives for your land. A variety of related activities can be added to your calendar. For example, tree cavities are important habitat for a variety of wildlife species including many birds and mammals. A walk in the fall or winter will make it easier to see how many trees have suitable habitat. Note snags (standing dead trees) and trees with dead, hollowed branches. To improve habitat for other types of wildlife, build brush piles from invasive shrubs. Cut the shrubs in July or late summer to avoid disturbing birds as they nest. Scheduling this work for the summer also helps reduce the spread of invasive shrubs like honeysuckle, since the seed-bearing fruits are not fully formed yet. A summer/fall activity relating to wildlife habitat you might add to the calendar is recording the types and numbers of native fruit and nut-bearing trees and shrubs you have (e.g., oaks, hickories, elderberry). If not many are found in your woodland, you might plan a tree or shrub planting for the spring. The Pennsylvania Game Commissions Howard Nursery currently has their seedling order information available. You can also check with your local county conservation district to see if seedling sales are going on in your area.
One value and intention you may share with other landowners is the desire to see your family or others close to you care for the woods as you do. In thinking of your woodland calendar, you can help build that legacy of enjoying and caring for the woods together by scheduling time to share your woodland experiences. Maybe a reunion is planned; go for a walk together as part of the event. Show your family your favorite spots in the woods. Ask them about theirs. Tell them about woodland activities you have planned and see if there are opportunities for them to take part. Maybe you have thought about how to pass on your land to family, or to someone other than a family member. Schedule a time to walk and talk about your hopes for the land, and listen to what hopes others might have. Develop a "woods mission" that you all support. If you have already begun that conversation, perhaps an activity for your woodland calendar is a talk with a land trust, or a financial planner, or a lawyer to help you understand your options for protecting your woodland and your legacy of caring for it.
No matter how long you have owned woodland and no matter how many trees you are caring for, you will benefit greatly from making a yearly plan. Your woodland calendar should have time for exploratory walks, making lists of things to learn and to do, specific projects to meet your objectives for improving habitat and forest health, and time for others to learn how you care for the woods and its future. Scheduling time in the woods this year will provide benefits to you personally and to your fellow Pennsylvanians who depend on healthy forests for clean water and for the natural beauty they provide in our lives.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, and the Center for Private Forests at Penn State, in Partnership through Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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Woods in Your Backyard
Written by Jim Finley, Ibberson Professor of Forest Management and Director, Center for Private Forests at Penn State
University Park, PA
December 16, 2015 -- Do you have woods in your backyard? Penn State research for Pennsylvania's Department of Conservation and Natural Resources Bureau of Forestry estimates that nearly half a million Pennsylvanians own a small patch of woodlands -- something less than ten acres in size. In fact, the average small ownership is about two acres. In sum these small patches add up to about a million or so acres, or about 10 percent, of our states privately held woodlands. We can speculate that about one in eight of Pennsylvanias households own one of these small woodlands areas.
Whether you have hundreds or just a couple of wooded acres, you may have plans for and visions about its use. In financial terms, your land is an asset; however, studies have repeatedly found that owners identify or associate other values or benefits to their woodlands. Perhaps, unsurprisingly, woodland owners, both large and small, report finding value in the solitude afforded by their woodlands and a sense of enjoyment with owning land. In fact, these are the two most popular values reported and are closely followed by wildlife and hunting.
It would seem that solitude, enjoyment, wildlife, maybe hunting, and many other values associated with woodland ownership should be rather easy to achieve -- they are just there and accrue over time. However, owning woodlands commonly spawns a sense of stewardship and responsibility to care for the resource for future generations. Extending this idea further, landowners may recognize that owning land connects them to a larger landscape, which is part of a community comprised of land, water, wildlife, plants, and people. This community depends on and is influenced by the actions of all who have stewardship over the land -- regardless the size of ownership. To enhance the values landowners attribute to their land or woods it is often necessary to become actively involved, to work toward some desired future condition.
The idea of improving land is likely accepted by most people at some scale. In the United States homeowners and communities invest time and money "improving" landscapes. The driving force is often aesthetics -- improving the beauty of the place. Sometimes the improvement may extend to function -- making changes to improve how a landscape functions. A common example of increasing importance might be managing storm water: capturing water runoff from roads, driveways, roofs, and lawns and having it infiltrate into pervious soils by building and planting raingardens.
Changing and improving small spaces such as lawns seems to come naturally. People seem to get it and there are resources -- think magazines, garden shops, education events -- that help guide these decisions; neighbors tend to indirectly or directly encourage a sense of community to improve where they live.
Those trees and woods in the backyard are somehow different. Certainly the scale is different, if not in area, certainly in height and complexity. Temporally, woodlands change by seasons, but come back pretty much the same every year. Green is often the dominant color that people associate with health, especially in woodlands. However, left alone woods become "messy," and the tendency is to "clean them up." In small woodlots and even large ones, a common response is to leave it alone if it seems healthy, and to tidy up messes. We remove dead trees; we leave live ones.
Woods are like any garden landscape. There are reasons to renew, weed, and thin. Think about it. At some point the trees and plants growing there reach their end -- age, competition, storms, insects, diseases, or whatever cause trees to decline or die. Where will the replacements come from? In healthy forests, especially in Pennsylvania, nature should help by "planting" the next tree. Unfortunately, in many woods, especially the smaller ones near urban centers, there is a failure to weed and thin sylvan gardens. Too often there is a failure to address the diversity of weeds. The list of common weeds, most of which are non-native that we have introduced from foreign places, is long.
You might know or recognize some of these invaders: multiflora rose, privets, bush and Japanese honeysuckle, Norway maple, Japanese barberry, autumn and Russian olive, Oriental bittersweet, Japanese stiltgrass. There are many more. So, why work at weeding them from the woods? Simply, these plants are very competitive and displace native species. While they provide a sense of health with their green leaves and often abundant fruit, they provide little support to native woodland species. Sure, birds feast on the fruit, but few insects eat the leaves. A complex cycle needed to help nesting birds to fledge their young, which depend on insect protein, is partially broken.
This story of species interdependence is complex and it extends across landscapes, from your backyard to your neighbors, to the woods, and beyond. It is not necessarily fully understood by even those who study and research such things. Nonetheless, if you own land -- lawn, fields, or woods -- there is much to learn. To help you and others learn more about your role in managing our land and woods, a second edition of The Woods in Your Backyard: Learning to Create and Enhance Natural Areas Around Your Home has just been released. This 108 page, spiral-bound book, with a forward by Doug Tallamy, who is nationally known for his work on the interaction of native plants, insects, and birds, can help you develop a plan to manage the land you care for.
To purchase your copy of The Woods in Your Backyard written by faculty at Penn State, University of Maryland, and VPI, visit http://palspublishing.cals.cornell.edu (its currently a featured book) or call 607-255-7654.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, and Center for Private Forests at Penn State in Partnership with Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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Giving Thanks for Woodland Owners
-- About 100 years ago, Joyce Kilmer penned, "I think that I shall never see/ A poem as love as a tree�" Nearly everyone has heard this short endearing prose; however, how many ever stop to ponder the benefits they receive daily from our sylvan landscapes? We tend to take trees and woods for granted, they have always been there; they will always remain. At this time of the year, as we move to the next season of winter snows and quiet landscapes, take a minute to reflect on how forests and trees add to your quality of life and give thanks for those who care for them.
In Pennsylvania, 70% of the state's 16 million acres of forestland is owned by people -- families, individuals, partnerships -- not the federal, state, or local government, and not industry. Pennsylvania likely has more woodland owners than any state in the nation. While academicians debate methods used to estimate the correct number, we know there are a lot of Pennsylvania woodland owners out there (740,000 by the most recent estimate). It is important to recognize that these unique individuals are daily making decisions about the care and well-being of their piece of Penn's Woods, and we owe them all a debt of gratitude.
From the smallest parcels with stands of trees (not maintained as lawn) that are an acre or more in size to the largest forested watersheds owned by individuals, partnerships, families, and hunt clubs, these wooded properties contribute to our Commonwealth's well-being. They clean our air, removing particulate matter and other air pollution that affect respiratory diseases -- heck, they make our air. These woodlands clean water and act as a sponge absorbing massive amounts of stormwater. It would take a rainstorm of over 4 inches/hour to overcome the infiltration capacities of good forest soil. Because of their capacity to absorb water, we seldom get gully-washers of that magnitude. Tree root systems, primarily the micro-roots, capture and hold pollutants to clean streams.
With 70% of the woods in the hands of private owners, their lands are the primary source of the raw materials that are the wood products we use daily. When we survey woodland owners, timber is number nine or ten on the list of reasons for owning woods. Things like connection to the woods, privacy, wildlife and biodiversity, recreation, family legacy, and aesthetics far outweigh a desire to cut trees. Yet many of these woodland owners understand that to keep their forests healthy and working, there are times when cutting trees is appropriate and needs to happen. A good woodland steward approaches cutting with an eye towards the next forest and ensures the forest left behind conserves and perpetuates their ownership values. Our state's woods are a renewable resource. They need care to remain healthy.
These 11.5 million acres of private forests are home to our state's charismatic mega- and micro-fauna. The deer, turkey, bear, fisher, porcupine, migratory songbirds, salamanders, snakes, insects, and many, many other species depend on woodland in their home and foraging ranges. White-tailed deer, our state mammal, evoke love and hate responses from woodland owners. On one hand when populations are out of balance they negatively affect forest values. When managed well, they provide untold viewing pleasure, sport, and economic value. No matter the species, forest habitat is an important resource to the wildlife that call our region home. And just think about the beauty these forests bring to our landscapes. Seeing green and thriving native trees aids in healing, reducing stress levels, and promotes relaxation and well-being. Penn's Woods' citizens would lose without our private woodlands.
Whether you are aware of it or not, our state's privately held woodlands are vital to our well-being. With the majority of it owned by people like you and me, the decisions made in its care affect us all. Many woodland owners put a lot of sweat, tears, and blood into caring for their woods -- battling invasives, worrying about forest health threats to their trees, creating wildlife habitat, and many other investments of time and resources. They want to leave their land healthier and better cared for than when they got it. Based on the trees' lifetimes, these owners wont see the results of their labors; but they benefit us all and those who come after. At this time of gratitude, give thanks for woodland owners. They care for the trees.
Allyson Muth
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Growing the Next Generation of Forests in Pennsylvania
University Park, PA -- September 30, 2015 -- Pennsylvania's forests face an uncertain future. The health of our forests is at risk. Invasive insects are threatening ash, hemlock, black walnut, and elm. Invasive plants such as honeysuckle, autumn and Russian olive, oriental bittersweet, Japanese stiltgrass, garlic mustard, and almost too many species to list challenge native species in many niches. Unrestrained parcelization and development are breaking woodlands into smaller and smaller properties that make it difficult to manage many of these threats as neighbors fail to cooperate or to understand how their individual decisions lead to increasingly depauperate forest conditions. There are myriad threats that must be considered or controlled when faced with trying to retain or regenerate (start anew) the forests. Well-informed landowners can make decisions that will move forests to a better place. They just have to know what to understand and how to create a plan to implement their goals.
For more than 40 years, research and inventory data has raised questions about forest regeneration in Pennsylvania. A recently published forest inventory of Pennsylvanias public and private forests by the USDA Forest Service finds that forest regeneration is a major concern. In those woodlands where canopy disturbance, from either tree mortality or harvesting, has changed light conditions that should spur natural regeneration, only about 4 in 10 acres has sufficient desirable tree seedlings to ensure the next forest. Desirable tree species include those important for timber production or wildlife food. If the list of species expands to include nearly all of our native tree species, the situation does not improve that much, as only about 5 of 10 acres are on a positive trajectory.
What is causing this to happen? As suggested earlier, non-native competitive plant species are benefiting from natural- or human-caused disturbance and winning the competition for light in our woodlands. Some of these competitors have an upper hand because they leaf out earlier in the spring and extend their growing season later into the fall and thus get a jump on native species. Adding to the struggle, white-tailed deer, which have exceeded ecological thresholds in some parts of the state for 50 to 70 years, have selectively browsed species they find palatable and given the advantage to species they feed on less frequently. For example, three species of ferns that spread by underground root-like structures and are not eaten by deer cover about 1 in 5 acres of forests in the state and exceed guidelines for achieving competitive tree regeneration.
If you want to regenerate a forest with naturally occurring native tree species it takes planning and the recognition that you will likely have to undertake a harvest to allow the conditions for regeneration to occur. Light has to reach the forest floor, but there are also other threats which have to be accounted for. Contrary to what many people believe, successful forest regeneration does not just happen following a harvest or disturbance. It did seem to work that way when todays forests came along, but that was 90 or 130 years ago. Things have changed -- invasive insects, plants, and deer. Now, achieving adequate desirable tree regeneration is a process requiring time and investments before removing any of the bigger trees extending into the canopy.
Research focused on forest regeneration provides some guidelines to help assess the potential for success in growing the next forest. In some ways, assessing forest regeneration is intuitive: are there tree seedlings and are there lots of them? Most guidelines combine the size and number of seedlings and you might find the suggested numbers for success overwhelming. To achieve adequate competition between trees as they develop and to ensure that enough trees will eventually reach the canopy, estimated numbers of seedlings might range from 10,000 to more than 50,000 per acre.
If woodland owners want to assess their regeneration, the first step is to identify what is already growing. Many people struggle to identify mature trees. Identifying seedlings adds another level of complexity; however, it does become easier over time and with repetition. In most cases, the species growing in the canopy should reflect the seedling composition and this becomes an identification aide. Of course, you may also find species brought into the area by wind, water, gravity, and wildlife.
If you want to improve forest health and want to improve conditions for natural regeneration, recognize that this will require a controlled disturbance, in the form of tree removals. It is important to consider how any disturbance in the forest canopy affects light distribution in the understory and on the forest floor. When trees die from cutting or insects, disease, weather, or competition, light conditions below the canopy change and that light begins to drive change, which can be either beneficial (e.g., spurs young tree seedlings to grow) or detrimental (e.g., fosters expansion of competitive plants, either exotic or native). To plan for successful forest regeneration after harvesting there are seven questions to answer before any tree removals occur:
1. How much will the planned disturbance increase light below the canopy? If when looking up at the summer canopy there is 40 to 60 percent or more blue sky, the remaining tree crowns will likely lack the capacity to attain full closure in the near future and you are facing a regeneration situation .If the goal is to establish or release regeneration, then the cutting intensity may be correct.
2. Do you have adequate desirable regeneration already in place? With regeneration in place, the species you hope to become the next forest will have a head start on the competition.Desirable regeneration refers to tree species that are important to wildlife and for any other goals you may have for your woodland, such as firewood production or producing timber to harvest. In todays forests, it is seldom the case that we have sufficient regeneration in place unless there was prior planning, efforts to control deer browsing, and a lack of competitive plants.
3. Are competitive native or non-native plants covering 30 percent of the area of interest? When competition is covering 30 percent or more of the area, studies suggest that it will expand quickly and dominate the area once light conditions change. If this is the case, it is likely prudent to invest in practices to control their spread -- some form of forest vegetation management.
4. Is there an adequate seed source of desirable tree species? When light conditions are right (see question 1), it is important to have adequate numbers of desirable seed producing trees. The answer to this question depends on the species, residual tree spacing, and ability of the trees to disperse their seed in the area. Light winged seeds such as red maple naturally disperse further than acorns, for example.
5. Will the planned disturbance eliminate or greatly reduce the occurrence of a desirable species in the woodlot? If so, can anything be done to retain that species or is it a valid decision to allow it to go away? For example, trying to retain ash in Pennsylvania woodlots is likely a lost cause. Contrarily, failing to retain red and white oak seed sources is not a good idea in most areas where they naturally occur.
Questions 6 and 7 relate mostly to disturbance caused by timber harvesting where the woodlot owner or the manager has more control over what they retain than what they remove.
6. Are the trees planned to be retained healthier and with fewer defects than the trees cut? Tree health and quality among the trees kept should improve. This guideline relates to harvesting or removing the worst trees first in timber harvests, which are a controlled disturbance. Too often, timber harvests focus on removing the valuable trees with the hope that the little poorer quality trees will improve over time. This is seldom the case.
7. Will the average tree diameter in the woodlot increase, stay the same, or decrease? There are few scientifically sound harvesting practices that result in the average diameter decreasing. Other than a clearcut, which if regeneration is in place and not stifled by competition is valid too, the average tree diameter should stay the same or increase some.
To adequately assess forest regeneration, you might find it necessary to involve a forester who has experience conducting inventories. As well, a forester should have the ability to evaluate competing vegetation, make suggestions for controlling or reducing invasive species, and lay out a plan for ensuring that you have adequate regeneration. Unfortunately, as suggested earlier, many of our woodlands are rapidly declining in health as owners and managers fail to recognize threats to forest health today and the implications for tomorrow.
To find a forester to help you with the management of your woodlands, visit the Bureau of Forestry website (http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/forestry/) and in the left-hand menu click on Your Woods.� There you will find a listing of service foresters by Pennsylvania counties who can provide some on-site advice or help you find a consulting forester working in your county. When choosing a professional forester to work with you and your land, keep the above seven questions in mind and dont be afraid to articulate your vision of what your value about your land. Find a professional who shares your interests and your trust to steward your land with you.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 F! orest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, and Center for Private Forests at Penn State in Partnership with Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
Jim Finley Ibberson Professor of Forest Management and Director
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Leslie Horner
A Closer Look at Pennsylvanias Forests -- Leave Them Be, or Lend a Hand?
University Park, PA -- July 27, 2015 -- Pennsylvania's woods provide us with numerous benefits -- among them are a variety of recreational opportunities, clean water, and habitat for a wide range of wildlife. These forests, like others in the eastern United States, have returned with vigor since the late 1800s and early 1900s. Then, land clearing and the use of wood for building homes, fueling factories, and building the nation's transportation infrastructure (i.e., roads, canals, and railroads) were so extensive and fast-paced that the Pennsylvania's forests were reduced to less than half of the forest cover we see today. Today, with over 16.5 million acres of forest, which cover more than half the state, it seems hard to imagine that the forest could be anything but healthy and robust. While that is true, a closer look shows that Pennsylvania's forests are changing, and some of those changes are cause for our concern and attention.
In forests statewide, the number of trees with large diameters has been increasing, and trees in smaller diameter groupings have been declining since the 1980s. While size does not always indicate a tree's age, studies of Pennsylvania's forests have shown that our trees are aging. In many of our woodlands the bigger trees are about the same age, creating what is known as an "even-aged forest." Like people, trees have different life expectancies that vary quite broadly, but do not have an infinite lifespan. Eventually all trees die. Since many of our trees are about the same age, we could see many trees reaching the end of their lifespan around the same time.
Why should we be concerned? Wont the forest just come back again? That is what we would expect, but Pennsylvania's forest now contains far fewer tree seedlings and saplings than one would have seen in the same woods two or three decades ago. These tree seedlings and saplings (also referred to as "advanced regeneration"), which should be the next generation forest, are absent in many forest stands. One major cause of the decline in regeneration is the increased competition from some plants that are growing where they did not used to be found. These "invasive plants" grow so quickly that they out-compete tree seedlings and other plants in the struggle to access water and nutrients in the soil, space for roots to stretch out, and room for leaves to access sunlight. Tree seedlings that don't die are stunted in their growth, leaving them small and not very hardy.
Another change in the states forests is a shift in species -- the species that used to be less common are trading places with species that used to be more common. Red maples are more than twice as common as any other tree species, while the number of oaks is declining. Red maples are native to Pennsylvanias woods and are not out of place; however, they are competitive. They grow faster than oaks; so in a forest opening where oaks would normally thrive, red maples beat them to the sunlight and slow the growth of oak seedlings, or other species that used to more numerous in our woods.
Acorns from oak trees are an important source of food to turkeys, squirrels, deer and many other wildlife species. Some years, an oak tree may not produce enough acorns to feed wildlife. A forest that has a variety of tree species will reduce the stress on wildlife in cases like this, by providing a variety of "mast" (an old English word that literally means "forest food"). In the years when red oaks dont produce as many acorns, for example, wildlife can be fed by a tree that produces similar food -- like the nuts from a hickory tree. Birds and other wildlife also need the soft kinds of mast, like the fruits of the black cherry tree. A diverse forest benefits wildlife by providing a variety of sources and types of food. A greater variety in tree species will attract and feed a greater variety of wildlife species.
A study of a forest plot in Pennsylvania showed that after forty-five growing seasons with no wire cage or other means to protect tree seedlings from deer browse, and no effort to control competing invasive plants, the study area contained no tree regeneration except for two individual red maples struggling to survive. This suggests that without active management in Pennsylvanias forests to protect seedlings and control competing vegetation to ensure enough light in the forest understory, our forests will see significant changes in species composition and a decline in species diversity.
A forest with many different tree species and with trees of many different age groups is a forest that will be resilient to changes in weather, disease, insect pests, and other stresses. If we want to continue to enjoy Pennsylvania's forests and wildlife, well need to think about how to actively deal with changes taking place -- shifting trees species and age classes. "Leaving it alone" could mean that we see fewer oaks across the landscape, or that we'll see some wildlife species struggle to find suitable habitat. Most of the state's forests (70%) are owned privately. Forest landowners across Pennsylvania taking steps to control invasive plants and help tree seedlings get established in their woodlands have an essential role in ensuring the long-term health of our woods.
To learn more about steps you can take, contact the Center for Private Forests at 814-863-0401 for a free copy of the Forest Science Fact Sheet: Regenerating Hardwood Forests--Managing Competing Plants, Deer, and Light and Forestry with Confidence: A Guide for Woodland Owners.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, c/o Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, Penn State Extension, and the Center for Private Forests at Penn State sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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Jim Finley
Leaves as Large as Elephant Ears
University Park, PA -- June 25, 2015 -- "Those leaves are huge! Are you fertilizing those trees?" exclaimed a participant on a recent walking tour of a timber harvesting demonstration site in central Pennsylvania. Immediately, I had a mental flashback to summers in Pittsburgh as a child.
One of the outside games I had fun playing was "Find the biggest leaf." It was not a game that most of the kids in the neighborhood played. Really there were only two of us who found joy in finding the biggest leaves. Through this game, we learned something about tree and plant biology. First, we discovered that, as youngsters, we were ideally structured for finding big leaves -- we were closer to the ground. We soon learned that big leaves were more common down low on trees and other plants. Second, we noticed the big leaves weren't common on the sycamores lining the streets; rather, they were in the shaded alleys and along the edges of unkempt properties, the abandoned old farm field and barn, and near the strip mine where the young trees were at a convenient height.
We'd call the giant leaves "elephant ears." The game had one major rule -- you had to stay with the same species. Sycamore leaves competed with sycamore leaves, Norway maple leaves with Norway maple leaves, forsythia leaves with forsythia leaves. You get the picture. Likely we never found a leaf as large as even a small elephant's ear, but we learned and searched. It was fun!
So, why are some leaves -- even on the same individual tree or plant -- bigger than others? Biologists describe the size difference simply as "sun leaves" and "shade leaves." For the most part, leaves growing in the sun are physiologically different from those growing in the shade. The difference relates to the environment they have to deal with and the light resources they receive.
At the top of a tree, a leaf receives more light and wind. These sun leaves are thicker and smaller. They are thicker because of the distribution of chloroplasts within the palisade cells, which are tall cells standing on end just under the leaves' "skin." This arrangement makes the leaves efficient at converting light to make sugars. It also suggests upper leaves are often darker green. Because upper leaves gather more light, they get hotter. Therefore, they have more and smaller stomata, which are a leaf structure designed to exhaust oxygen and water -- a cooling mechanism -- than are found on shade leaves. The advantage of having lots of small stomata on a smaller leaf is the ability to adjust moisture loss not only to heat, but to increased wind moving across the leaf's surface.
Lower down in the tree, where the leaves are shaded by those higher up, the logic begins to reverse. The leaf is thinner because the palisade cells are shorter. This arrangement makes sense because light is less intense and does not reach as deeply into the leaf, and the leaf is often a lighter shade of green. Because the chloroplasts are closer to the surface, the leaf area increases to make it more efficient resulting in bigger leaves. The stomata are larger and wider spaced. In general the shade leaf stays cooler, has less wind moving across its surface, and needs less cooling.
What was a fun game for us as children turned out to be a great lesson: Trees and other plants respond to their environment in ways that increase their efficiency. Sometimes the reasons behind the differences in plant structures seem obscure, but nature is about efficiency. It is fun to explore our forest environment and to share our observations and thoughts. If you have the chance this summer, go looking for an "elephant ear" in your woodlot. While you are at it, invite a child to enjoy the game, "Who can find the biggest leaf?"
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry, USDA Forest Service, and Center for Private Forests at Penn State in Partnership with Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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Jim Finley
Spring Green: Reading a Story of Forest Health
University Park, PA -- April 23, 2015 -- Spring, it is finally here. Even if you love winter, there is something about the warming days, gentle rains, and spring green that draws you outdoors or at least warrants a longing look out the nearest window.
Almost magically, we go from the brown gray fields and lawns to that fresh green, which is somehow vigorous and alive. A green that is much different from the green of June and July. Spring green, in its many shades, communicates a message of renewal and health.
If you are fortunate enough to have a forest or woodlot nearby, you can watch as the canopy takes on other colors and hues. A month or so ago you might have noticed tinges of purple, or, now, reds, yellows, and shades of green. This is truly a season of colors. Not the same bold all-encompassing colors of fall; rather, the soft pastels of spring.
Unfortunately, not all shades of green in our forests tell a story of health and vibrant renewal. Some of the early greens tell of unwelcome and health-robbing exotic invasive plant species. Many of these plants once occurred only in our yards and gardens; now they are increasingly dominating our forested landscapes and replacing more desirable native trees and understory shrubs and herbs.
The careful observer is aware that many of the early greens in our urban and forested landscapes are not our native plants. These early, and sometimes just as lovely, shades of green tell a story of changing plant health. Many of the most successful invasive plants have a physiological advantage over natives. Simply, they start to grow leaves earlier in the spring than do many native species.
Looking out my office window, it is easy to pick out the Norway maples in the neighborhood across the way. Already, they are sporting yellow-green crowns of flowers and young leaves, while the native maples, basswood, elm, and oaks are just beginning to show activity. The elms are brown-looking, the red maples are tinted red, and the sugar maples and basswood are still waiting to play their hands. In the woods, where Norway maple is becoming increasingly common, especially near our cities, the green really stands out early in the season.
The understory tells the same story. Some of the first plants to show their young, soft, green leaves are not native. If you know some of these plants, you will readily recognize that privet, bush honeysuckle, oriental bittersweet, and autumn olive are quick to green-up and gather in early spring sunlight before native trees begin to show leaves. These Asian plants also begin to green before native understory plants such as dogwoods and viburnums and by doing this being to express their dominance. Our native plants fall behind in the competitive race for water, nutrients, and light.
Should we care if these once friendly and invited guests from other places take over niches in our forests and woodlands? According to some researchers the answer is an emphatic yes. Physiologically, these plants have a jump on natives and because they are foreign to our landscapes, many of them do not host insects that would normally control, in part, their spread across our landscapes. These competitive exotic plants are not part of the ecosystem and they do not feed insects, which in turn feed other insects, amphibians, reptiles, and birds. In short, many of these plants do not contribute to forest health -- they actually take away.
The story of forest health and early spring green is complicated. If you take your time, you can learn to read this story on many landscapes. If you care, learn how to write a different story in coming springs. Work to control unwanted early spring green and plant natives in your yard and landscape. By doing so, you can still have spring greens, but know they represent a gift to others who benefit from and enjoy healthy forest landscapes.
Dr. Doug Tallamy, professor of entomology at the University of Delaware, has written a very informative book about the importance of native plants to our native insect and bird populations and what homeowners can do to enhance native habitat in their own backyards. "Bringing Nature Home," is an excellent addition to your library as you work to be a good steward of the land.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry and USDA Forest Service, in Partnership with Penn States Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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Thinking about Firewood
University Park, PA -- March 31, 2015 --Some pundits are suggesting that heating with wood is experiencing another surge in popularity. The last big turn to wood was in the 1970s following the oil embargo. Then, the focus was on woodstoves inside the house, where many found comfort in intense warmth. At the same time, many learned about the puffs of smoke, the never ending sweeping up of sawdust, bits of bark, and ashes after the inevitable cleaning. Today, you increasingly see outdoor heaters standing outside or with their short chimney poking up through a tin roof of the small shelter some erect over the stove to protect it and the wood pile. Other times you first notice the blue-gray smoke wafting across the yard and look around for the source.
Smoke is a concern with wood heating. Wood smoke is full of chemicals that threaten our health and the air we breathe. Smoke and wood are like soup and sandwich, they come together; however, with planning and forethought it is possible to reduce the amount of smoke. Without getting too technical, smoke contains four parts: particles such as ash, unburned volatiles, carbon compounds (think carbon dioxide), and water.
After a colder than normal winter in the Northeast, the last thing you want to think about is firewood. You might still be wondering if there is enough to get through the last few weeks, but now is the time to turn your thoughts to next winter. It will be here before you know it and you want to have dry wood ready. Burning unseasoned, or worse green, wood is not a good idea because you lose heat (which means you need more wood to heat the house), you create more smoke, and you increase unwanted fire risk as residues collect in venting systems.
When firewood has high water content, full combustion does not happen until the moisture is driven off. When wood is wet, the fire smolders and the heavy blue smoke is full of water and chemicals. You can smell the difference; it is acrid and harsh. When dry wood burns in a woodstove with adequate air flow (not a dampered down, smoldering fire), the volatiles burn. On the other hand, when wood is wet, even with adequate air flow, the fire still tends to smolder as the water driven off by slow combustion cools the fire. In this case, there is no flame and lots of smoke. It takes heat to drive off that excess moisture and that heat is lost as the moisture vapor carries it up the chimney. The wetter the wood, the more difficult it is to burn.
The conventional wisdom is that firewood in our climate should be cut, split, and covered for at least nine months to a year before burning. By doing this the wood will have time to lose water due to evaporation and will approach equilibrium moisture content, which for Pennsylvania is around 16 to 20 percent. Achieving this desirable dryness takes time and work. Ideally, it would be great to have a two year supply of wood at the ready at the beginning of each heating season. At the least, you should be working on next years wood right now and have it stacked and ready to go by mid-fall.
Cut, split, and stacked is the admonition. Split wood to expose as much surface as possible and to reduce the cross-section so it loses water more quickly. Stacking takes space and is not a haphazard process. Ideally wood stacks should be under roof or at least covered, but in a way that moisture laden air can escape -- covering with a tarp that traps water is not the best solution. To encourage drying elevate the stack on runners or pallets. This allows air to move up through the stack. Expose the stack to air and sun, which further accelerates drying. As the fall approaches, if you "smack" dried pieces together, you will hear the tonal difference. Dry wood nearly rings when ready.
Heating with wood provides great exercise, a sense of pride, a different level of comfort; however, it takes time and commitment. For your health's sake, make sure you are burning dry wood. If you are splitting the wood right before it goes into the stove, or worse yet, burning it in the round all the time, you are likely wasting heat by sending water and volatiles up the chimney and creating more smoke than necessary. Burning dry wood saves money and reduces smoke. Cut your wood now. Follow the safety rules, and get ready for next winter. It comes around every year.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry and USDA Forest Service, in Partnership with Penn States Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
Jim Finley
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Bob Hansen, Ph.D.
100% Pure Pennsylvania Maple Syrup: A Great Tasting Treat!
University Park, PA -- February 18, 2015 -- To be sure, Pennsylvania has had a spate of cold weather this February. Although, if you watch the sky, it is pretty obvious days are lengthening and that means spring is on its way. Longer days will, eventually, mean moderating temperatures. For pancake lovers everywhere that suggests maple syrup season is nearly here.
Maple sugar is truly a North American product. While we generally think of maple syrup, Native Americans boiled maple sap to make sugar, likely a very important food source high in energy and easy to carry. Early North American settlers learned how to make maple sugar from the native people and soon developed methods of their own. Maple sugar remained the most popular product until the early 1900s when cane sugar became more common; sugar makers then began to make more syrup to grace pancakes.
For many woodlot owners today, making maple syrup in the early spring is an important activity. For some, it is a major cash crop from their woodlands. It is a unique crop as it is often produced, processed, and sold entirely on the farm.
The Canadian Province of Quebec leads North America in maple syrup production. Pennsylvania generally ranks 6th or 7th in syrup production. Other states producing syrup include Vermont, New York, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Ohio, Wisconsin, Maine, and others where maple trees grow and spring conditions are just right.
Common species most often tapped for syrup production are sugar, red and, the much less common black maple. Sugar maple is preferred. Tapping generally does little harm to the tree if correct guidelines are followed. Trees ten- to eighteen-inches in diameter (at 4 1/2 feet above the ground) can have one tap. Trees larger than eighteen-inches can have two taps. Tap holes, 5/16 inch in diameter, are bored at a slight upward angle into the tree to a depth of one to two inches into the sapwood. A spout or spile is gently tapped into the hole until it fits snugly. A stainless steel bucket, special plastic bag or a tubing system attached to the tap collects the sap.
The amount of sap needed to make a gallon of syrup varies with the amount of sugar in the sap. Sap sugar content varies from tree to tree, day to day, and season to season, from less than 1% to rarely 10%. The normal is about 1.5% to 3%. Approximately 40 gallons of sap with 2% sugar content will produce one gallon of syrup
In the sugarhouse producers use evaporators to remove water and concentrate the sugars. In this process the sap darkens in color from light amber to vary dark brown. . Syrup has a minimum concentration of 66% sugar solids and this occurs when the boiling sap is 7.5 degrees F above the boiling point of water (varies by altitude and barometric pressure). When the sugar concentration is less than 66% the syrup may ferment and spoil, while syrup with sugar concentrations greater than 69% sugar will often crystalize.
Syrup color often relates to the time of the season the sap is collected and boiled. Early season syrup is generally lighter in color than sap collected and boiled later in the season. The lightest amber syrup is often used to make secondary products such as candy, cream, and crumb sugar. Medium and dark amber syrups, with a stronger maple flavor than light amber, were the standard table grades. Grade B, which is darker than dark amber and often off flavored, is used in cooking and mixing with other grades or sold to companies making syrups (not pure maple syrup) using other sugars.
Up until this year, 2015, syrup was graded as light amber (a very light golden color with a delicate flavor), medium amber (an amber color), and dark amber (a darker amber color). Syrup darker than dark amber was graded as commercial (Grade B).
For several years the International Maple Syrup Institute (IMSI) and the North American Maple Syrup Council (NAMSC) have been developing a new grading system. This year, the new grades were adopted by the United States Department of Agriculture. These grades are: Golden - delicate taste which was the light amber grade; Amber - rich taste, which includes the former medium amber and lighter shades of previous dark amber; Dark - robust taste which includes former dark amber and grade B; and Very Dark - strong taste, which consists of darker than grade B (known as commercial in some states). The belief is that the new system will concentrate on the most important descriptor of syrup grades and that is how it tastes! As the new grading system is adopted in Pennsylvania you may see syrups labeled with the previous grades, the new grades, or a combination of both. But the quality of Pure Pennsylvania maple syrup will remain the same!
If you see steam rising from a sugarhouse you will know that maple season has arrived. Producers will welcome you to their sugarhouse to watch them make this special product. If you go online to www.pamapleassociation.com and click on tours, you can find dates when regional maple associations host maple weekends.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry and USDA Forest Service, in Partnership with Penn States Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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Allyson Muth
Trees and Cold: Where Are Their Long Johns?
University Park, PA -- January 16, 2015 -- It's winter in the northern climes. For many people, it's time to hibernate, curl up in front of a fire, drape yourself over the nearest working radiator, layer if you have to go outside, stay inside if you can, hope that the heat is on at work so you can justify a low thermostat setting at home. As mobile denizens of the region, people and animals find ways to hide from or tolerate the weather. What about those rooted in the ground? How do they survive cold weather?
Logically, layers of bark on trees and woody shrubs do provide some protection, but not much. When temperatures drop, trees have to have a plan to handle freezing water. They just cant add a coat or sweater. They dont have to deal with wind (wind chill is a human-construct), which makes us feel colder as water evaporates from our skin; nonetheless, cold is cold. How do trees adapt?
We all know that the deciduous trees lose their leaves, which are not designed to take cold temperatures. They enter a phase of not quite hibernation called dormancy brought on by a combination of shorter days and falling temperatures. Theyre not growing. Theyre not moving water and nutrients up and down. But they still have challenges. And for the evergreen trees, that have leaves all year round, photosynthesizing, when temperatures allow, requires water and moving nutrients around.
There are two big risks to trees in frigid weather. Water can freeze within living cells and rupture them, and air bubbles can form in the xylem (the part of the tree that moves water from the roots up) which can cause a break in the water column (embolism). When there is a break in the water column, trees can no longer pull water up to their photosynthesis factories, the leaves.
Remember from your elementary science class, water expands when it freezes. And ice does tend to have sharp edges. Imagine the water in a living cell freezing. Ice crystals would take up more space and rupture the cell membrane, causing the cell to die. Trees have to have some ways to prevent this. The prevention process for all trees starts in the fall when they change the water content of their cells. They start by taking in more sugars and creating a highly saturated solution within the cell, shrinking the cell somewhat -- the tree now has an antifreeze to prevent ice crystal formation. It takes time for trees to complete this process, a period of acclimation. Even trees that are good at creating antifreeze experience cell death with an early cold snap or late spring frost. As the cells create this antifreeze, water moves out of the cell and into the spaces between cells, where it will not cause damage if it freezes. Evergreen trees use this technique to keep their leaves year round, along with small openings in the needles (stomata) that allow gases in (and sometimes water out), and waxy coverings that help to protect the needles from frost damage. Deciduous trees use this technique to a lesser degree because they lose their leaves in the fall thereby preventing winter damage to the leaves.
Even as conifer trees have adapted ways to retain their leaves and to reduce ice crystals throughout, they may still need to move water on those warm days when some photosynthesis takes place. How do they do this with their roots in frozen soils? In Pennsylvania, most of the time forest soils dont freeze, at least not deeply. So there is some access to water; however, they still need a strategy as freezing of the water column can cause air bubbles to form from gases dissolved in the water. When the water thaws, these air bubbles remain and may rupture the water column. In the process of moving water, trees are dependent upon waters cohesive nature (water molecules bond to each other) to aid movement against gravity. Trees living in cold regions, especially conifers, have evolved water conducting cells that are very narrow hollow tubes (narrower than those in deciduous trees) that enable the water to move at lower pressure and thus reduce the potential for embolisms.
It turns out that many of the evolutionary adaptations that allowed trees to respond to drought, allowed them to adapt to colder regions of our world. Its all about water and its presence or absence. So, even if it is cold outside, know that your trees are doing well and waiting to share their glory with you come the warmer temperatures of longer days in the spring.
MinuteEarth has a great video about this process: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d260CmZoxj8
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry and USDA Forest Service, in Partnership with Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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Bryan Swistock
12/18/2014
Forests Blanketed in Snow -- A Good Sign for Groundwater Aquifers
University Park, PA -- December 17, 2014 -- Grumble. Grumble. It is going to snow. Grumble. Grumble. Why does it have to snow? Grumble. Grumble. It is so dark, cold, and snowy. You know how it is. Many folks have trouble accepting winter, cold, and snow. It seems, often, that everyone wants every day to be bright and sunny. They can tolerate the cold (maybe), as long as it doesn't snow or rain. (It is not clear which most folks find preferable; a snowy blanket on the landscape, or rainy skies and wet feet.) Sometimes it seems that the only folks who appreciate snow are kids -- no school. Maybe it is time for an attitude adjustment?
Lets consider how winter snow fits into our annual water cycle. Across Pennsylvania, the amount of water we receive every month is relatively even. In the spring, summer, and fall, we have rain and in the winter our water often comes as snow. Snow as part of the water cycle is really important. Why champion snow?
Officially, on December 21, we move into the winter season, and many recreationists including hunters, skiers, and snowmobile enthusiasts excitedly look forward to snow-covered forests. But, forests blanketed in snow should also be appreciated by those who enjoy streams in the summer and rely on groundwater wells and springs for drinking water supplies. That's because forests and the snowpack together are important for recharging underground aquifers that hold trillions of gallons of freshwater stored in pore spaces and rock cracks beneath the soil surface. These aquifers maintain streamflow throughout the year and provide water that supports industries, businesses, agriculture, and ensures drinking water for millions of Pennsylvania residents.
The forest creates a perfect environment to capture and to allow water from melting snow to slowly enter the ground. Soil under forest canopies acts like a sponge to soak up and pass water from the surface into groundwater aquifers. Where forests are removed, soils may become compacted or even paved, reducing the amount of water that infiltrates into the ground to support aquifers. Water infiltration into the ground occurs most efficiently during times when the forest is dormant. Thats where a thick snowpack becomes beneficial.
The snowpack that accumulates during the winter insulates the soil underneath it, keeping the soil largely unfrozen and able to absorb water from melting snow. Since trees and other plants are dormant during early spring, most of the snowmelt water entering the soil can infiltrate and recharge groundwater aquifers. The snowpack also represents a large volume of stored water that can be released slowly during the spring melt. A ten-inch snowpack covering just one acre may hold 30,000 gallons of water or more. Once the snow is gone and trees leaf-out in late spring, most infiltrating water from summer rainstorms is taken up by the roots of the growing trees. The water contributed to our aquifers during snow melt creates a cycle where we have high groundwater levels during March and April that typically fall throughout the summer and early fall.
Ground water aquifers recharged in the spring by melting snow provide water supply wells and streams with a steady source of cool ground water during the long, hot summer. Fish and other stream life have adapted to the increased stream flows in spring and the relatively cool ground water supplied to the stream throughout the summer. Without this spring recharge, stream levels may drop and stream temperatures may increase to dangerous levels during the summer. So the next time you cast a fly over a rising trout or take a drink of water from your well or spring, remember that the combination of undisturbed forests and winter snowpacks provide much of the groundwater that we rely on every day.
Hopefully, you now have a reason to appreciate the snow that falls from our winter sky and blankets us with a winter cover. Snow, just like rain, is important to ensure the high quality water we enjoy in Pennsylvania and for keeping our forests healthy and growing. Let it snow!
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry and USDA Forest Service, in Partnership with Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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Taking to the Woods: A Holiday Tradition
University Park, PA -- November 21, 2014 Unfortunately, too many folks heed the lyrics from the popular song, "Let it snow" -- The weather outside is frightful, the fire is so delightful� and, from my perspective, they stay indoors during the best season of the year. Winter woods are delightful and add another dimension on how to enjoy those sylvan places you love in other seasons.
Research on private forest landowners conducted at Penn State finds that about 8 out of 10 of the state's holders of woodlands hope to pass it on to one or more of their children; yet, only about 4 of 10 have discussed the land with their heirs and about 1 in 4 actually manage to pass their land on to their heirs. Maybe one of the reasons this happens is that they don't find time to talk about the future of the land? A winter sojourn might provide the perfect opportunity to engage your family or heirs in an outdoor activity that is fun, relaxing, and can provide an entry for talking about the future of the land you love.
In the next month or so, many families will come together; it is a tradition. Now, this begs the question, what is your family's holiday tradition? A meal and football on television? Watching the Thanksgiving parade in New York, again, on television? Or, a meal followed by the adults talking while the kids play electronic games? Let the winter woods pull you outside, they are amazing and magical places that many folks do not know that well.
Sure, it can be cold and the wind may blow. It might snow, and you all experience the quiet of gently falling snow, or the sting of driven flakes. It might be cold, blustery, and rainy; a day when ice forms tiny beads on twigs and shines tree trunks, decorating the landscape in a special way. Don't let the weather stop you. The combination of weather and family can bring real enjoyment to you and others as you experience it together building memories.
My father had two simple rules related to the weather. If you get cold, you will get warm. If you get wet, you will get dry. On winter walks a highlight was the fire dad always built. He was a master at this. He would gather the fine sticks, maybe some yellow birch bark, pull out his wooden matches and nurse the flame. Wood was gathered and laid on the fire so the sticks would burn in half and the ends were fed toward the center. A teepee was too much work to build; you had to break all that wood. Once the fire was going you mounted the search for the "just right" toasting stick (we always brought sandwiches, not hot dogs), which had to be long enough to stay out of the smoke and would support the open sandwich. You exposed the meat to the forming coals by removing a slice of bread, putting it on top of the other slice, and methodically rotating the layers until it was all warm, toasty, and well smoked. There were many memories formed, stories told, and time together enjoyed. Those times still bring smiles.
If you have kids along, they will enjoy the fire and smoke. Make sure you have those sandwiches, snacks, a thermos of hot chocolate, and even more special treats promised for later. Bring along an extra pair of gloves, sweater, and muffler. Before and after you stop, keep folks moving to stay warm. Make it fun. Look for things you do not see in other seasons -- the squirrel and mouse tracks loping across the snow, bird nests previously hidden by leaves, or, in the nearby stream, watch air bubbles move lava-like under the ice. The sounds of winter are special, too. You might learn to appreciate the moan of the wind and rattling twigs in the canopy, or hearing trees crack and creak as they shiver in the wind, enjoy stillness in the piney woods, or the jays' call or the raucous sounds of crows. Smells, sights, and sounds can create memories that are quite strong -- the tinge of smoke, the sparkle of ice, and the sounds of winter may well help start an annual tradition that ties you and your family to the land and each other in different ways.
Your winter walk need not be long. It might be best if it is short and enjoyable. Hope that it creates memories and becomes part of your traditions. It is about building a relationship to the land and each other. The more a person experiences a place, builds a relationship with, and creates memories that extend into the past and tie to the future, the more likely they are to want to protect it. Take time to talk, recall what you did and, importantly, suggest you do it again next year.
If you would like to learn more about how you might start a new family tradition that might help you create a conversation about your woodlands and how you value it, please visit our website (http://extension.psu.edu/legacy). There you will find resources about starting a conversation about your land, where to find help on estate planning, and other information that you might share with your family or others. Talking about the future of the land is difficult, but if you love it, you should create a plan that will help future generations experience your ties to it.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry and USDA Forest Service, in Partnership with Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
Jim Finley
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Summer Rains Bring Fall Flowers
University Park, PA -- September 26, 2014 -- "April showers bring May flowers" is a common refrain reminding us the importance of water to a verdant revival after the winter whites. Might we suggest this year that May, June, July, and August rains bring spectacular fall flowers? It doesn't roll of the tongue in quite the same way, but this fall's flowers are showing amazing patterns across the landscape.
Maybe, in August, as a preview of a show yet to come, you noticed something was different. Our early fall blooms were bright, large, and common. The joe pye weed, for example, was tall and full. You often spy this late summer to early fall bloomer on field margins where the soil tends to hold a bit of moisture. The large flower heads that vary from pinkish to mauve attract many butterflies. This fall, joe pye weeds were easy to see. There also seemed to be more splashes of royal purple provided by ironweed, which seemed more brilliant and common this year than in the past. Evidently there are several different species of this spectacular plant, which vary in height and site preferences -- something to learn more about next year.
Joe pye weed and ironweed were two actors previewing the main event for this year's fall. As the summer progressed, flower heads on goldenrod began to form -- they were evident nearly everywhere. Now in late September they have burst forth with their golden heads and have filled the landscape with splashes of color that seem radiant in the autumnal sunlight. Interspersed are flat topped and purple asters adding to the display. Again, as there are several ironweeds, there are even more asters adding color to our meadows and woodland edges -- more to learn.
The most obvious and showiest of the flowers this fall does seem to be goldenrod. Various references acknowledge that Pennsylvania is rich in goldenrod, which is the genus Solidago. By the way, Solidago comes from Latin solidas and ago, meaning "to make whole." A web search will quickly reveal a number of medicinal uses for the plant including its ability to heal wounds, yet some people experience skin irritation when exposed to the plant. People often associate goldenrod with fall allergies and curse its presence. Likely those lovely yellow flowers are not the problem as their pollen is too large, moist, or sticky to travel far. In reality ragweed is likely the culprit with its relatively inconspicuous flowers which pollinate about the same time as goldenrod.
A particularly good website (http://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?guide=Solidago) suggests there are sixty-nine goldenrod species native to North American and fully a third, twenty-three species, naturally occur in Pennsylvania. This website provides amazing tools for identifying goldenrod species in their myriad forms by providing information on the native ranges by species as well as descriptions and photographs to parse out individual species growing in your landscapes. It does this by sorting ranges, heights, stem texture, leaf margins, leaf texture top, and leaf texture bottom. Did you know there is even a white goldenrod, which sounds a bit contradictory?
To the astute observer, there is something unique about goldenrod. In a field full of these yellow plants, it is likely difficult to notice that it grows in small patches. Goldenrod forms small clusters, maybe containing a few flower stems, or larger areas, which are actually circular clones sharing a common rhizome root structures and up to eight feet across. Again, careful observers will note that most of the plants in a given clone will be similar in height; by looking for this height difference you can sometimes see patterns in large fields. Because goldenrod is a perennial plant, it appears year after year in the same location and may reach 100 or more years of age. As the clones mature, the center might die out and form a fairy ring with plants defining the clone's edge and having a "hollow" center.
Fall is a great time to be afield, there is so much to study and observe. We are only a couple weeks from peak leaf color change, but already fall colors are a beautiful part of our landscape. Take a walk, take a flower book along, and learn some new species. Think about how plants come together to create the landscapes we know and love, but often observe from afar. And, while you are at it, take a kid along and introduce them to a world of wonder.
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The Private Landowners of Penns Woods
University Park, PA -- April 24, 2014 -- Pennsylvania is home to many things including about 12.5 million people of whom 740,000 are woodland owners, 16.6 million acres of forest of which 71% is privately owned, and 42 billion trees growing in our woodlands. Now, most of those woodland trees are small; the USDA Forest Service estimates there are about 33.8 billion seedlings less than an inch in diameter or about 2,500 trees per acre of woodland. Ignoring the seedlings, there are nearly 500 trees an inch or larger in diameter per acre. Truly Pennsylvania lives up to its name, which is literally Penn's Woods.
Those numbers paint a picture of Penn's Woods that only a number cruncher can truly enjoy. Most people dont get really excited about describing woodlands by number of trees per acre. Rather, they build connections to woods and trees in different ways. However, living in Pennsylvania where you can see trees from nearly every point in the landscape, it is easy to become complacent about what trees mean to you.
If you think about it, trees and woods are likely part of who you are. In a recent national study, we talked with groups of people about trees and woodlands in their lives. We purposefully sought out diverse opinions by talking to a breadth of people from different ethnic, cultural, urban vs. rural, age, and economic segments. There was a common thread -- people considered forests important for many reasons including spiritual or intrinsic values, physical or psychological health benefits, quality of life, aesthetics, tranquility, watching and enjoying wildlife, wilderness experience, and relaxation. There were differences among some of the groups, but clearly we learned that people have multiple concerns about forests and their future.
Closer to home, we have conducted several studies, most recently in 2010, to learn more about our state's 740,000 woodland owners (we did not talk to them all, but we had a large sample). In this study, we defined woodlands as an acre or larger, with a minimum width of 120 feet, and not maintained as lawn. Using this definition, which comes from the USDA Forest Service, we learned that about 64% (470,000) of Pennsylvanias woodland owners hold less than 10 acres of woods, and another 15% (111,000) own between 10 and 19 acres. Together, though, these two ownership classes hold about 25% of the states privately held woodlands -- 2.75 million acres. This all means that about 155,000 larger owners hold the remaining 8.25 million acres of private woodlands, which averages to 53 acres each.
In Pennsylvania, why do people own woodlands? This was a fundamental question for this study. To answer this question, we first asked study participants to select, from a list of reasons, the "very important" and "important" reasons for owning woodlands. The number one reason was wildlife, not necessarily for hunting, but for watching as well. Close behind was solitude or simply the protection and comfort woods provide -- the idea of getting away. Not surprisingly, given the large number of small ownerships, many respondents held woodlands because it came with their home -- think large lots in suburbia.
Pressed a bit harder, respondents were asked to look at those items they chose as important from the reasons for owning list and to pick the most important. Solitude was the most important reason given by 18% of the owners who owned about 12% of the woodlands -- clearly this reason resonates with owners of smaller parcels. Second in the listing was enjoyment -- the idea of owning land and all that it brings with it (17% of owners and 18% of the land). Third was hunting (12% of owners and 18% of the woodlands). Incidental came in fourth (meaning the woodland came with their home) representing 12% of the owner and 6% of the woodlands; again, the small owners fell into this group. Fifth was wildlife and since hunting was already listed, this response likely reflected the watchable wildlife interests with 12% of the owners and 8% of the woodlands. Surprisingly, the sixth response by owners was an estate to pass on to others, which represented 6% of the owners and about 11% of the woodlands. Most surprising of all was interest in timber for sale, which was chosen by less than 2% of the owners representing about 5% of the woodlands.
People own woodlands for a blend of many reasons. While those reasons might be incidental to where they live, most people celebrate the trees on their land. They might not check on them daily or wonder about their health constantly, but they do value the benefits they provide. In the 2010 landowner study, we wanted to learn how people thought about the future of their woodlands -- beyond their ownership -- when they passed it to the next generation or owner, if that was possible. Interestingly, 80% of the owners expressed interest in keeping their land in the family. They wanted one or more of their children to have the land, to become the next steward. At the same time we learned that nearly 60% of todays woodland owners in Pennsylvania had done nothing to engage the next generation in discussions about the land nor had they taken steps to make their intentions a reality.
To ensure that we have healthy productive forests and woodlands for tomorrow it is essential that we monitor their current health and condition. Yes, we have 42 billion trees in Pennsylvania, which is an interesting statistic. Some large percentage of those trees is owned by 740,000 individuals and families who have assumed a stewardship responsibility for their care and maintenance. Educate yourself about how to care for your woodlands, so that its there for those who come after, be they your family or the next owner. Contact Penn State Natural Resources Extension to inquire about free publications, or visit our website (http://extension.psu.edu/natural-resources/forests/private/tools-resources) to see whats available to help you learn more about your woodlands.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry and USDA Forest Service, in Partnership with Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
Jim Finley
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Vernal Pools: Critical Woodland Habitats
University Park, PA -- March 24, 2014 -- After a long winter, signs of spring are showing in woodlands across Pennsylvania. Obvious indicators are swelling tree buds, especially red and silver maple, corn snow patches remaining where deep drifts were, and in yards, daffodil, crocus, and tulip leaf tips pushing into the warming spring air.
For many woodland owners and visitors, spring is found in wetlands and vernal pools. One of the first spring woodland flowers depends on wetlands. The careful observer will take delight in finding hooded skunk cabbage flowers melting the snow around them (yes, they actually create their own heat) and showing their purple and white-spotted hoods.
The real spring show stopper is the vernal pool. In the spring, these shallow pools, filled with spring snow melt and higher water tables, become meccas of activities as many of the states amphibians migrate to them to breed. On late winter and early spring nights, salamanders, toads, and frogs that have traveled from nearby upland sites provide astonishing shows as they create springtime "dances" in woodland vernal pools. It is important to understand that many of these species are struggling with habitat loss and degradation and their survival depends on making good decisions as we manage, use, and change woodlands and affect associated wetlands and water resources.
Vernal pools, which are seasonal wetlands, and their surrounding landscape represent unique and threatened ecosystems. Depending on the time of the year and your experience in recognizing characteristics associated with these pools, it is sometimes easy to overlook them. Statewide, these isolated seasonal wetlands, which do not connect to other water bodies, are very vulnerable to disturbance. Key among these threats are habitat loss in the uplands surrounding pools, changing water levels and quality, debris accumulation, habitat fragmentation, vegetation changes, and climate change.
Studies have shown that many of the species dependent on vernal pools for at least part of their life cycle spend most of their lives within 1,000 or so feet of their birth site -- in that pool. So, it is critical to protect or improve conditions around their pool. For example, development that involves land clearing or felling trees might increase solar gain on the pool, changing water temperatures. Compacted soils and disturbed forest floor leaf litter remove habitat and change water flow through the soil, and might reduce water depths and change water chemistry. The installation of a street curb or a rut created by vehicle traffic near the pool becomes an insurmountable barrier. Soil erosion sediment or debris from felling trees or construction easily fill the pool and reduce or increase water levels.
Sometimes we all fail to realize how various species depend on small parts of our environment. Forests are a dominant land cover in Pennsylvania. Woodlands with wetlands and especially vernal pools are much less common and becoming even less prevalent as we use and change land. Species that depend on water, especially seasonal water, and woods are particularly limited in how they can adapt and change. Many of these species have very high fidelity to their birth pool and will even move past a suitable site looking for that special place. We need to help them survive by taking care of their critical habitat.
The Pennsylvania Natural Heritage Program, a partnership formed by The Western Pennsylvania Conservancy, The Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, The Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission, and he Pennsylvania Game Commission, has an amazing website with outstanding information on the condition of our states natural resources (http://www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/VernalPools.aspx). If you are unfamiliar with it, go look, and explore all it has to offer. Especially, look at the link to vernal pools under the Resources� tab. This is an amazing website and it is fun and easy to navigate and read.
Spend some time learning about Pennsylvania's precious natural resources and consider how you can protect our vernal pools. If you happen to have a vernal pool on property you own or visit, you will find a very helpful vernal pool management guide on the website, which will likely become a valuable resource as you care for these important resources.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 235 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources! Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry and USDA Forest Service, in Partnership with Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
Jim Finley
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The 3-Rs of Healthy Woodlands
University Park, PA -- December 9, 2013 -- We are fortunate to live in a state that boasts so many trees and acres of woodlands. The benefits we derive from our woodlands are innumerable and greatly enhance our quality of life. Whether you have a small woodlot, trees in your yard, a tree-lined street, or access to acres of public lands, you likely recognize how trees contribute to your well-being.
Have you ever turned this around? How do you contribute to the well-being of the forest? Many people believe that trees and woodlands left alone will take care of themselves. We believe that Mother Nature knows how to do this. Unfortunately, our impact on the environment makes her job increasingly more difficult. We pollute the air and water, abuse the soil, introduce insects, diseases, and plants that injure and kill trees. The list of evils we do to trees and woodlands is long, diverse, and growing.
What can you do to increase the health of the trees and woodlands that give so much to you? You might consider the 3-Rs that underpin helping to improve the vigor and health of wooded landscapes. Rather than reading, writing, and arithmetic, think Resistance, Resilience, and Response.
Resistance is about helping trees and woodlands defend against change. There are several ways to look at this. From the perspective of the individual tree, it might be as simple as protecting it from damage such as wounding and physical damage during construction or when doing maintenance. It might also mean addressing stresses such as competition from competing plants and other trees, providing water during droughts, or selecting the correct growing site. At the woodlot level, you move from the individual tree to the larger and more complex interactions that lead to natural changes as plants compete with each other and together face stresses together, as well as issues related to changes in the environment brought on by climate, weather, harvesting, and losses due to insects and disease. The intent here is to help the woods return to pre-disturbance conditions by controlling plants competing with regeneration, reducing competition between trees to increase crown vigor, or removing damaged trees to benefit those of better health and vigor.
Resilience involves taking steps that improve the ability of trees and woodlands to withstand anticipated changes or to directly defend them from disturbance to stay relatively unchanged. This involves watching, learning, and planning. In Pennsylvania, several tree species are struggling with life-threatening insects -- hemlock wooly adelgid and emerald ash borer for example. Individually, you can protect trees from both of these problems, but such decisions will involve continued maintenance. Within the woodlot, hemlock wooly adelgid might be held at bay for a while by judicious thinning related to site conditions to increase residual tree vigor. In the case of emerald ash borer, it might involve salvaging and encouraging regeneration of other tree species to replace lost trees. It also means thinking about what you can do in the woodlot to improve native plant diversity representative of what might have grown there in the past or what might be better suited to future conditions.
Response again involves watching, learning, and planning; however, the purpose is to monitor and understand how decisions work in an adaptive context. That is, you have made decisions and implemented them -- how have they worked out? With the individual tree, have you seen an improvement in vigor? What else might you do to increase resilience and build resistance? As you move from the individual tree to the woodland the complexity increases, but so do the options. As woodlands grow and age, change does happen. Individual trees and species grow at different rates, they compete for resources, and they affect each other's health and condition. Essentially, the individuals who together grow in a place drive change among themselves, which in an undisturbed woodlot is a natural process. But as we anticipate change, such as changes in long-term weather patterns or major insect impacts, how can we help the forest to adapt to what might happen in the near or long term? Such preparation might involve changing species composition by adding or subtracting those that might compete poorly, introducing individuals of a species adapted to areas with climate similar to the anticipated change, or doing work to increase natural diversity.
Trees, woodlands, and forests are important to us in varying ways. As we move along a spatial continuum from the individual tree to a functioning forest, the decisions and considerations become increasingly complex. We know that people have and will continue to influence forest growth and development. To ensure that our forests remain healthy and have the capacity to meet our myriad needs, recall the 3-Rs of forest health -- Resilience, Resistance, and Response. We owe it to ourselves and all those who benefit from our good forest stewardship.
John Elders wrote in a 1997 essay entitled Inheriting Mount Tom that We must conceive of stewardship not simply as one individual's practice, but rather as the mutual and intimate relationship extending across generations, between a human community and its place on earth.� We need to care for the trees individually and together to ensure that they provide benefits from our stewardship.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 234 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry and USDA Forest Service, in Partnership with Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
Jim Finley
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Pennsylvania Private Forest Landowners and Future Plans
University Park, PA -- November 26, 2013 -- Forest stewardship is wisely caring for and using forest resources to ensure their health and productivity for years to come. Stewardship challenges us to look beyond our immediate personal needs so we can leave a lasting forest legacy for future generations. Pennsylvania has an estimated 738,000 private forest owners who together make stewardship decisions on about 11.5 million acres, or about 71% of all the states 16.8 million acres of forestland. Granted many of these current owners have small parcels; an estimated 500,000 individual woodlots are smaller than 10 acres, averaging just less than 3 acres. Relatively few, about 25,000 woodlots, are 100 acres or larger. Nonetheless, together these owners make decisions about one out of every eight acres of our states private forests.
On average our state's woodlot owners hold their land about eighteen years, which is not quite a generation. When woodlands change hands at the end of an ownership, there are often direct decisions made that affect many of the values these lands provide to the owners and to society. Often the current owner harvests timber prior to selling to gain the maximum value out of their land. The next owners harvest timber to recoup the cost of the purchase. Those who inherit harvest trees or subdivide and/or sell all or part of the woodland to pay estate or inheritance taxes, or because theyre just not interested in being forest landowners. This is not to say that harvesting is bad; rather, it should be part of a longer term plan and not be tied to ownership change processes where connections to the land are severed or formed.
From a forest landowner study undertaken by researchers in Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management in 2010, we learned about Pennsylvania woodland owner's future plans. Fourteen percent plan to sell their forestland "as is." Twelve percent plan to establish trusts that will pass their forestland to their families. Nine percent plan to put conservation easements on their forestland to prevent future development, and nine percent plan to subdivide and sell off part of their property. Fifty-seven percent of forest landowners say it is important to them that their forestlands remain in the family. Yet very few are taking concrete action now to make that transfer to the family happen with ease.
The study began by interviewing landowners to learn about how they decided to: 1) subdivide and sell their lands, 2) put a conservation easement on their land, or 3) what landowners are thinking about and planning for when they have not yet formed a plan about the future of their forestland. In the second part of the study they surveyed forest owners in thirty-five counties to learn more generally about their plans for their woodlands.
From the interviews, the researchers learned that each group had different perceptions of their relationship to the land. For some landowners conversations about the land had an attachment or connection theme. For others the land was an enabling entity -- having it, selling off part of it, allowed them do things important for them. For landowners who had subdivided and sold part of their forestland they reflected on the influence of outsiders on that decision, for example family members or fulfilling obligations. They also perceived they had no alternative to subdividing and selling. It was the fastest and easiest way to a desired or necessary end result. For those who had placed an easement on their land, their conversations about the decision included strong elements of control. They wanted to influence what happened in the future on that land and advocated for its continued conservation. Those who had yet to take concrete action talked about the unknown -- not wanting to tie up the land as both a resource and an asset, but still wanting to be good land stewards.
Bottom line, the study learned that the process of deciding about the future of forests is incredibly complex, and that many decisions about the future of the forestland are not economic driven. Emotions play a large role in the decision-making process and, where families are involved, those family dynamics strongly influence what happens next.
If you are woodland owner, what do you do? Clearly there is not a one-size fits all solution, because everyones situation, relationship to the land, and family dynamics are different. Landowners can start the process by having conversations now with each other, with heirs, if theyre present, with conservation organizations, if thats a desired end goal. Being a good steward of the land means caring for and wisely using the land now, but always with an eye towards the future -- not compromising future generations of owners� abilities to care for and wisely use the resource as well.
If you are ready to begin considering the future of your forestland but dont know where to start, Penn State Natural Resources Extension has created some materials � resources guides, conversation starters, and other tools to help you think through your own vision and begin to engage those you hope to come after you. Visit extension.psu.edu/legacy to learn more.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 234 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry and USDA Forest Service, in Partnership with Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
Allyson Muth
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Jim Finley
Email: fj4@psu.edu
For Immediate Release
Wow! Pennsylvania is full of trees!
University Park, PA -- October 23, 2013 -- Literally Pennsylvania means Penn's Woods. A grant from King Charles II to William Penn in March 1681 established the colony founded on Quaker principles for religious freedom. Sylvania is a Latin word that means "forest land." Penn recognized the value of the Pennsylvania forests and, shortly after receiving the grant as payment of debt owed his father, issued his Charter of Rights. In this document he ordered colonists to leave one acre of trees for every five acres of land cleared.
As reported in the recent USDA Forest Service forest inventory publication, trees and forests still dominate Pennsylvanias landscape. In the past statewide forest inventories conducted by the US Forest Service were periodic -- every 10 to 15 years. Starting in 2004 the data are collected annually and reported on a five year cycle. The most recent 2012 report on Pennsylvanias Forests (2009 data) provides useful insights into the health and condition of the states woodlands.
Pennsylvanias forest land area is stable, with some parts of the state gaining while others are losing forest cover. This has been the case since the mid-1960s as the forest recovered from heavy cutting in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Land use patterns suggest that the forest land area stability is a function of offsetting of development in the southern tier as agriculture declines in the northern tier counties. The amount of forest cover has relatively constant at about 59 percent or about 16.7 million acres.
Most of this forest land, about 71 percent, is held privately by individuals, families, partnerships, and other entities not in the business of harvesting and using trees. A recent Penn State study estimated there are 738,000 individual private ownerships in the state. Most of these ownerships are small parcels; oftentimes, they come with the home. In fact, about 420,000 of these ownerships are smaller than 10 acres, and about 25 percent of the private forest is in ownerships of less than 20 acres. Statewide there are only about 25,000 privately owned forest tracts larger than 100 acres in size. This study and others suggest that the average size of our privately owned forest is decreasing.
Just how many trees are there in Pennsylvanias forests and woodlands? First, forest, by the USDA Forest Service definition, has to be at least an acre in size, with a minimum width of 120 feet (fencerows and narrow strips don't count), have tree cover of at least 10 percent, and not be maintained as lawn. Using this as the basis for the count, there were an estimated 8,168,796,257 trees one inch and larger measured at diameter breast height (a foresters term for measuring the diameter 4.5 feet above the ground, abbreviated DBH) growing in our woodlands. In absolute terms, this is about 3.4 percent fewer trees than we had in 2004. Most of these trees (68.2%) were 4.9 inches or smaller DBH, trees 5 and up to 11.9 inches DBH represented about one of four trees (25.6%), and the remaining trees were 12 inches and larger (6.2%).
While the number of trees might have dropped a small amount, the estimated volume of trees growing in the state increased. Between 2004 and 2009, the average volume per acre of Pennsylvania forest increased by 60 cubic feet from 2,138 to 2,198 cubic feet. If you consider this from a cordwood perspective, that means that the average acre of woodlands in the state now holds about 27 cords of wood and increased in volume by just under a cord in the five years between inventories. A cord, by the way, measures 4 feet X 4 feet X 8 feet and contains 128 cubic feet of volume, but only about 80 cubic feet of this volume is actually wood. Hence, if you are familiar with the cord measure, you might have questioned this math.
From a removal perspective, Pennsylvania is still growing more wood than it uses. Forest industry harvests trees for many uses and it is a major part of the state's rural economy. The 2009 data finds that the growth to remove ratio is 2:1 for timberland -- the forest is growing twice as much than is harvested. Specifically, the overall growth-to-removals for public and private ownerships were 2.7:1 to 1.8:1 respectively. Stocking, a measure of the number and size of trees on an acre, is changing most on privately held timberland.
Not everything is rosy. Sixty-seven percent of the forest land lost during the inventory period, which was primarily offset by agricultural abandonment, was converted to essentially nonreversible uses. Landowner study data finds that much of this loss is the result of parcelization, the process by which land areas are increasingly divided into smaller parcels. This affects habitat and management options and drives further parcelization, which threatens many forest values.
The report conveys concerns about potential impacts from non-native insects and diseases that are increasingly affecting forests. Among these are gypsy moth, hemlock wooly adelgid, emerald ash borer, Asian long-horned beetle, thousand cankers disease, sudden oak death, and the list goes on. Added to this are the rapid invasion and expansion of non-native exotic plants that are filling our old fields and woodlands with aggressive competitors. That list, too, is long and growing.
A truly problematic concern is the continuing failure to establish adequate tree regeneration (the next generation of trees) in woodlands disturbed by harvesting and other events. Using guidelines developed by the USDA Forest Research Lab near Warren, Pennsylvania, the 2009 inventory assessed adequacy of tree regeneration. When there was canopy disturbance sufficient to initiate and sustain seedling growth and development, only four of ten acres had sufficient desirable regeneration to replace the overstory. Desirable species are those important to product manufacturing and wildlife (e.g., oaks, maples, ashes, hickory). If the list of species was expanded to all commercial species (i.e., add birch, beech, blackgum, elm, black locust, aspen), only half the forest is in good shape. If the list expands to include all woody species (e.g., sassafras, invasive ailanthus, dogwood, striped maple), the situation only improves to 54%.
Forest regeneration issues are not new to the state. Repeatedly, research has pointed to regeneration concerns caused by white-tailed deer, competing plants (e.g., ferns, grass, beech, striped maple) and to this list we now a host of exotic species, and acid deposition. On the horizon are concerns about changing climate conditions and parcelization that make it easier for competing plants to gain access to woodlands and may reduce our ability to manage deer populations.
The 2012 Pennsylvania's Forests report sheds some light on opportunities and concerns related to keeping our forests healthy and working � providing social, economic, and ecological benefits to all citizens. Clearly, it is important for woodland owners to practice stewardship if we are to continue to meet the needs of future generations. William Penn understood the importance of forests and admonished colonists to use the resource wisely. We should do no less.
If you wish to review the Pennsylvanias Forests 2009 report, visit http://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/pubs/rb/rb_nrs82.pdf.
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Forest Stewardship News
Forest Resilience and Private Forest Landowners
On August 26 and 27, Jim Finley, Ibberson Professor of
Forest Resources Management, and I attended a workshop in
Washington, D.C. on Engaging Private Forest Landowners on
Issues Related to Climate Change.� This conference, hosted
by the National Academy of Science Board on Science Education
and Board on Environmental Change and Society, brought
together natural resources professionals from federal agencies,
state agencies, Cooperative Extension, and the private sector.
While some participants were also landowners, most of us wore
our resources professional hats.
The workshop goals were to:
The two days were filled with presentations from experts
from forestry, sociology, communications, and others who had
experience implementing outreach activities for private forest
owners. We heard about practical experiences with climate
change and other harder to hear� messages. The main focus was
to hear from social scientists about reaching out to private forest
landowners.
But the consensus of the group was that climate change
is not a message that resonates with landowners. Despite 97%
of scientists agreeing that climate change is occurring, there
are still many perceived variations on the causes, effects, and
responsibility to act. Creating a message around climate change
and forestry that addresses these three issues for landowners is
particularly challenging, as each person is unique with their own
experiences and value systems.
But heres the thing: forest landowners who actively care for
their woods (and by actively care, I mean, make well-informed
decisions about actions they undertake or dont take on their
properties) are already doing the right thing! Theres not a lot
more they can do to the land. There are landowners who need
to hear about reforestation (replanting or naturally regenerating
forests where forests had once been) and afforestation (planting
areas to trees that hadnt been in forest), but for the most part,
forest landowners desire to be good stewards of their land, and
theyre doing a great job.
Regardless of personal beliefs about climate change and
probable causes, I think we can all agree that we are watching
our forests change. Change is an important component of the
forest landowners� experience. We hear about new threats from
invasive insects and diseases. We hear about new markets for
wood products. We watch native and non-native invasive plants
become established and spread. We watch the ebb and fl ow of
wildlife species and their impacts on and needs from the woods.
We pay attention to the weather and maybe see a change in the
overall climatic pattern. To embrace all of this, maybe we should
instead talk about Forest Resilience.
What is Forest Resilience? To my mind, it means having
species diversity so that when one comes under attack, there are
others there. A diversity of age structures across the forest so that
the next forest is already planned for or underway. Responding
to disease and insect outbreaks, where feasible, and based on the
type of threat, removing trees or treating them, or just knowing
when to let them be. Resilience means mitigating for change. If
the climate does warm, if rainfall patterns do change, is there a
diversity of species that can survive higher temperatures, more or
less rain, etc.? If forest stewardship is taking care of and wisely
using the forest now, without compromising the needs of future
generations, then forest resilience falls under the taking care part.
Being good stewards implies caring about what happens beyond
your tenure. The goal for all of us is keeping forests as forests,
healthy and diverse, and able to respond to threats.
So now its your turn. As youll read, Forest Leaves is
undergoing some change. Wed like to invite you to contribute
more to this publication and share practical experiences youre
having on your land. What are you seeing change? Whats staying
the same? What threats are you addressing? What opportunities
are you taking? What are your experiences with stewarding
your land?
Were introducing a new space for you (the Forest Leaves
Log, or if you have a better suggestion�). We hope you will
take the time to write in and share what youre seeing. You are
the best hope for fostering forest resilience across Pennsylvanias
private forests. Tell us about what youre doing and together we
can all learn more about how to better keep forest as forests.
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Allyson Muth
Citizen Science Opportunities: Landowners Contributing to Research
University Park, PA � July 30, 2013 - What is that insect? Havent seen that plant before? Is it early for frost? Is that bird more common in the south?
Are you a keen observer and inquisitive about things outdoors? Maybe you should become a citizen science supporter. More and more scientists are benefiting from data provided by people who take the time to share their observations through various websites.
Observational data is a tremendous research tool. It can tell scientists about extent and spread of populations (both floral and faunal). It can tell scientists about timing of occurrence or appearance. In the case of non-native species, it can help scientists understand introduction and conduits of travel. And in light of continuous change to landscapes, climate, and our forests, whether anthropogenically or ecologically driven, observational data can tell how species react to change.
As a forest landowner, or someone just interested in the forests, you have the ability to contribute to research through citizen science. If you are a birder, or know someone who is, you've likely heard of, or participated in, the Audubon Societys Christmas Bird Count (http://birds.audubon.org/christmas-bird-count). The Cornell Lab of Ornithology (http://www.birds.cornell.edu) with their Citizen Science program hosts the Great Backyard Bird Count, Project FeederWatch, and several other programs around bird species, populations, and extent of range. These are great citizen science programs and it is easy to contribute to the data.
There are two other citizen scientist opportunities that help scientists understand landscape level response to change. The first, the National Phenology Networks Natures Notebook program, tracks the calendar of events -- when trees bloom, when birds nest, the last frost, the first snow -- through observations of plants, animals, and weather. The second, the Early Detection and Distribution Mapping System, records observations of invasive plants and efforts to mitigate their presence. Both programs generate long-term and widespread data useful for research and practice.
National Phenology Network: Nature's Notebook (https://www.usanpn.org/natures_notebook) is a national, online program where naturalists record observations of plants and animals. Phenology is the study of plant and animal life cycle events and how these may be influenced by weather and habitat.
Participating in Nature's Notebook requires weekly visiting a site you select for about ten minutes and observing specific species that you choose from their list. For Pennsylvania, there are 444 species of plant and animal available to report on. You would spend about two minutes observing on your chosen plant or animal (or multiples thereof), making note of weather, etc., and recording the data according to the programmatic guidelines. You then enter the data via the website or your smartphone where it is aggregated with other reports to understand timing of emergence, nesting, fall color, egg laying, hibernation, and myriad other activities and how that changes over time and landscape.
Monitoring invasive plants, their spread, and control is vital, no matter the invasive species. One way that many landowners and resource professionals are monitoring the extent and spread of invasive plant species is through the use of online, citizen-science reporting tools. The Early Detection and Distribution Mapping System (EDDMapS) is one such tool (http://www.eddmaps.org/). This web-based (with apps available for your smartphones) system for documenting distribution of invasive species is easy to use. EDDMapS documents the presence of invasive species. A simple, interactive Web interface engages participants to submit their observations or view results through interactive queries into the EDDMapS database.
To use, simply enter information from your observations into the standardized on-line data form, which facilitates adding specific information about the infestation and images. Data entered is immediately loaded to the website, allowing real time tracking of species. EDDMapS also encourages users to participate by providing Internet tools that maintain their personal records and enable them to visualize data with interactive maps. As invasive species become more widespread, and new species make their appearance, monitoring and action become even more important. Anyone with an interest can help advance the knowledge of species range and spread in hopes of mitigation and control.
Citizen science lets the average interested individual contribute to the larger understanding of our natural world. As our actions impact the world around us, either at a local or global level, recognizing the extent of change helps determine practices to mitigate or adapt. Through these citizen science tools you learn about the place you care about and inform the larger community. These are just a few of the offerings out there. There are many more tailored to your own interests and passions. Have fun and thanks for contributing!
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 234 9473
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August Is Tree Check Month!
University Park, PA � July 30, 2013 - With invasive pests and diseases threatening the diversity of Pennsylvania's woods, it's incumbent on landowners and the general public alike to keep watch over the trees that contribute to our state's beauty. The US Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA APHIS) has declared August "Tree Check Month." Its the right time to get out into the woods and watch for signs of diseased and dying trees.
In Pennsylvania, we already see the impacts of Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) and the dead and dying ash trees throughout the state (EAB has been confirmed in 39 counties, but the entire state remains under quarantine and the insect is expected to spread throughout); Hemlock Woolly Adelgid (HWA) and the dead and dying hemlocks on mountainsides and along streams, soon to impact water quality and temperature; and the native forest tent caterpillar and non-native gypsy moth, which have been and continue to be part of Pennsylvania's forest ecosystem. And while there are practices, chemical, and biological control methods that can help mitigate the spread of these insects, the task is daunting. Its a sad time for our forests.
Now with two more threatening insects, one with an associated fungus, on our borders or in isolated areas of the state, it is imperative that we all become more vigilant about dead and dying trees.
The Asian Longhorned Beetle (ALB), Anoplophora glabipennis, is a non-native insect first discovered in Brooklyn, New York in 1996 and detected in Chicago in 1998. In the 2000s, it was found in New Jersey, Massachusetts, and most recently discovered in southeastern Ohio. While not yet found in Pennsylvania, ALB is one of the more aggressive invasive insects that could easily make its way here. ALB kills trees as the larvae feed in the branches and stems. ALB grows, reproduces in, and kills up to thirteen genera of trees, including maple, birch, horse chestnut and buckeye, poplar, willow, elm, ash, and alder.
Asian Longhorned Beetles are large, shiny, black insects with random white spots. They measure 1 to 1 inches long, with black and white banded antennae as long as (females) or twice as long as (males) their bodies. Adults are active from mid-May until early August. The females scrape a small notch in the bark to lay eggs. The larvae bore in to the branches and trunk to feed in the wood and cambial layer of the tree. Mature larvae pupate within the galleries they have made, and adults chew their way out leaving round, dime-sized exit holes. August is a peak emergence time for the adult beetles and a time when landowners and members of the public can help to check trees for the beetles.
In 2011 Thousand Cankers Disease, a disease complex that attacks black walnut (Juglans nigra) made up of a native (western species) walnut twig beetle (Pityophthorus juglandis) and a native fungus (Geosmithia morbida), was found in Bucks County, Pennsylvania. Until recently this disease primarily affected eastern black walnut planted outside its native range in Western States. In the summer of 2010, it was first noticed in Knoxville, Tennessee, well within the native range of black walnut and it has begun to spread. In 2012 the walnut twig beetle and the fungus were identified in southeastern Ohio.
To kill the tree, as the beetle feeds on black walnut branches, it creates numerous galleries beneath the bark. The adult beetles carry the fungal spores and introduce them into the phloem when they construct the galleries. Small cankers develop around the galleries, which then enlarge and coalesce to completely girdle the branches. Trees die as a result of the canker infestations at the thousands of beetle attack sites. Usually the first sign of infestation is thinning crowns in the black walnuts, yellowing or wilted leaves on limbs, and then branch death.
The most important thing you can do to protect your trees is to check them regularly and encourage others to do so too. You don't have to wait for August to roll around each year to do these checks. Learn about other symptoms and signs of infestation and disease. Early detection is crucial to maintaining Penn's Woods. For more information on these and other insects, visit the DCNR Bureau of Forestrys Forest Pest Insects and Disease website, at: http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/forestry/insectsdisease/index.htm.
To report possible infested trees in Pennsylvania, contact the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture at 1-866-253-7189, the DCNR Bureau of Forestry, Division of Pest Management at: 717-948-3941 or email: Badbug@pa.gov.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 234 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry and USDA Forest Service, in Partnership with Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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News Release (and Event Calendar)
James C. Finley
Multiflora Rose: The Mixed Blessings of Rose Rosette Disease
University Park, PA - July 30, 2013 - Increasingly across Pennsylvania, it seems that the ubiquitous patches of multiflora rose are displaying symptoms of rose rosette disease. This disease, first described in Canada, California, and Wyoming in the 1940s, has slowly worked its way across the range of introduced multiflora rose. Landowners and managers who have battled this invasive plant for years celebrate; rose growers lament.
Multiflora rose was brought to North America in the 1700s from Asia as rootstock for grafting ornamental roses. It was not too long, though, before it was recognized for other values. From the 1940s through the 1960s, many conservation agencies touted the "living fence" for its many benefits. For sure, planted along pasture margins it kept cows and horses confined. But more importantly, here was the ultimate conservation plant. It was easy to grow; it grew well almost anywhere -- even strip mines. It held the soil. It provided plentiful and nutritious hips. It created wonderful dense wildlife habitat. Many wildlife species flourished with its presence. Some departments of transportation thought the tangles of thorns were useful as crash barriers.
Before too long, though, it was apparent that multiflora rose had the potential to dominate landscapes with its rapidly growing canes. As the name multiflora implies each rose bush is capable of producing hundreds if not thousands of rose hips, and each of these hips contains, on average seven seeds. These highly viable seeds can lay dormant for a long time, up to at least twenty years, waiting for the right conditions to germinate. Birds and other animals that readily eat the hips can quickly spread the seeds across the landscape.
Fortunately or unfortunately, rose rosette disease is becoming more common. It has slowly spread through native, wild, and multiflora rose populations arriving in southwestern Pennsylvania sometime in the 1990s. Researchers at the University of Arkansas finally isolated the rose rosette virus in 2011, although it had been present for many years. The disease moves by an eriophyid mite or by grafting, and multiflora rose is very susceptible. Mite populations are lowest in the spring and build through the summer, becoming most abundant in September. Here is the challenge: cultivated roses planted downwind of infected multiflora rose are especially at risk when wind currents move mites. Once infected, roses can show signs of the disease in as few as four weeks. There is no known treatment or cure for infected plants.
Rose rosette disease has many symptoms. It is most often recognized by a rapid elongation of new shoots, which often form clusters of small branches or "witches brooms." The leaves on these brooms are often small, distorted, and often red in coloration. The canes where brooms occur will often be soft and pliable, even the thorns have these characteristics, at least for a while. Flowers forming on these canes may also display deformities. Infected plants often die in one or two years; however, some plants may live as long as four years. Some researchers report that infected canes are more susceptible to damage from low temperatures.
While some landowners will celebrate the loss (reduction) of multiflora rose. Its loss is not a reason to reduce vigilance. At least one study has shown that the void left by its demise is rapidly filled by bush honeysuckle and, perhaps, autumn or Russian olive. Some people suggest that we give up the fight against burgeoning invasive plants; others argue that we have to encourage more indigenous plants to support native insects, which feed our native species. If you want to keep invasive plant species at bay on your land, the sooner your act, the better. It is much easier to control a few plants.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 234 9473 (toll free), send an email to RNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry and USDA Forest Service, in Partnership with Penn States Department of Ecosystem Science and Management sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
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December 17, 2012
Winter Leaves that Hang On
We are near the Winter solstice, and hardwood trees are mostly bare, stark against the sky, without their leaves. The only hint of summer's green trees are the conifers scattered about yards and forests. Here and there, though, brown, dried leaves clothe some hardwood trees. Two small trees in our yard, a white oak and a shingle oak, both in the white oak group, rattle in the winter winds, holding fast to summer's leaves.
On winter woodland sojourns, you may have noticed hardwood trees holding fast, sometimes all winter long, to their spent and dried leaves. Marcescence, the term used to describe leaf retention, is most common with many of the oak species, American beech, witch hazel, hornbeam (musclewood), and hophornbeam (ironwood).
Normally, as deciduous trees (which include hardwoods and some conifers) prepare to shed their leafy summer coats, cells at the interface between the twig and the end of the leaf stem release enzymes and form an abscission layer that "unglues" the leaf -- separating it from the vascular bundles, allowing it to fall free. All trees shed leaves, even conifers; however, they generally retain their needles for more than one year. Leaf drop benefits deciduous trees by reducing water loss and allows them to develop leaves that efficiently use available sunlight during warmer seasons.
Sometimes, early cold weather or frosts may interrupt the abscission process or "kill" leaves quickly. In these cases, the occurrence of marcescent leaves may increase. Lacking killing frosts, why would trees "decide" to retain their leaves? It is impossible to ask the trees, but we can speculate.
Marcescent leaves are often more common with smaller trees or more apparent on lower branches of larger trees. In the case of smaller trees, which in forest conditions would be growing beneath taller trees, the reduced sunlight might slow the abscission process. By doing this, the understory tree leaves and the leaves on lower branches of larger trees would also have the opportunity to continue or even increase their photosynthetic process as upper leaves fall. Then, perhaps, leaves lower in the canopy are "caught" with cold temperatures and their leaves hang on.
Some people speculate that retained leaves may deter browsing animals, such as deer. The dried leaves may conceal buds from browsers or make them difficult to nip from the twig. Researchers have found that the dried leaves are less nutritious. At least one study, conducted in Denmark, found that deer offered hand-stripped twigs preferred those to marcescent twigs, especially of beech and hornbeam, but not so for oak. Nutrient analysis found the protein content of oak twigs was higher and the dead leaves had less lignin. The protein content of beech and hornbeam twigs was about equal to the leaves; however, the lignin content was nearly half again higher in the leaves. Maybe there is something to the leaves protecting the twigs.
The other reason trees might give for holding onto their leaves relates to nutrient cycling. Leaves that fall in the autumn would join others on the forest floor and begin to decay. As they decay, released nutrients could leach away and be unavailable to "feed" trees the next growing season. This might be especially important to small understory trees with smaller root systems. By holding onto their leaves, they retain and recycle their nutrients to themselves.
Regardless the reason for marcescent leaves, when growth begins next spring the expanding buds will push them off and clothe the branches with new greenery. Until that happens, enjoy the waving brown leaves and the texture they add to forest and yards. Then, too, think about the bit of shelter they provide for wintering birds as they perch among the rattling leaves, away from winters wind.
The Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program provides publications on a variety of topics related to woodland management. For a list of free publications, call 800 234 9473 (toll free), send an email toRNRext@psu.edu, or write to Forest Stewardship Program, Natural Resources Extension, The Pennsylvania State University, 416 Forest Resources Building, University Park, PA 16802. The Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry and USDA Forest Service, in Partnership with Penn State's Department of Ecosystem Science and Management sponsor the Forest Stewardship Program in Pennsylvania.
Written by: Jim Finley
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Your Woodlands: Making Good Forest Stewardship Investments
Woodlands provide an excellent opportunity for describing stewardship. Most woodland owners find real value in their land -- they either have or develop a concern for the trees, wildlife, water, beauty, and solitude afforded them by their land.
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